The influence of psychological readiness of athletes when returning to sport after injury

Background: Injuries are a common occurrence in sports participation; however, they have the potential to be accompanied by negative thoughts and feelings, which may play a part in the athletes' state of mind when they return to their sport. Assessing the degree to which this occurs provides an opportunity to evaluate and address athletes' state of mind before their return to play. Objectives: To determine if athletes are psychologically ready to return to play after an injury and if there are differences in fear avoidance behaviour between those who were and were not ready to return. Methods: Eighty-eight athletes participated in this descriptive survey. Athletes' confidence to return to play was measured by the Injury-Psychological Readiness to Return to Play (I-PRRS) questionnaire and their fear avoidance was measured by the Athlete Fear Avoidance Questionnaire (AFAQ). Results: Fifty injured athletes with a mean age of 23.3±4.0 years old responded to the I-PRRS and the AFAQ questionnaires. The average I-PRRS score was 46.5±9.1 AU. The evidence suggests that 60% of the athletes were not ready to return to sport (41.0±7.5 AU), whereas 40% were ready to return (54.8±3.1 AU). The difference in scores was not significant. The relationship between the AFAQ scores and the I-PRRS score for the 'ready' and 'not ready' groups was not significant (p=0.066). The mean AFAQ score (26.1±8.6 AU) for the 'not ready' group is marginally greater than the mean AFAQ score (21.6±7.5 AU) for the 'ready' group. There was a negative correlation between psychological readiness to return to sport and athletic fear avoidance (r =-0.508, p<0.001). Conclusion: There needs to be a greater utilisation of psychological assessment tools like the Injury-Psychological Readiness to Return to Play (I-PRRS) questionnaire, which can assist the athlete's support team, who can help identify athletes who are apprehensive about returning to sport after injury.

Effects of COVID-19 lockdown on physical, mental and emotional parameters among sportspersons

Background: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) lockdown was a strange and new occurrence, which left many individuals ill-equipped to cope with the new way of living. Sportspersons had to adapt to a new training style within a new environment, both physically and mentally. Aim: The purpose of this study was to understand the physical, mental and emotional parameters among sportspersons during the COVID-19 lockdown regulations. Setting: The study consisted of 105 regular sportspersons (from South Africa). Methods: This was a quantitative research study design using an online questionnaire. An online questionnaire was adapted and distributed via online social platforms (WhatsApp, Twitter and Instagram) to collect data in which sportspersons (n = 105) answered questions about the effects that they experienced during lockdown on their physical, mental and emotional well-being. Results: Sportspersons participated in cardiovascular training, flexibility training, strength training and bodybuilding exercises during pre-lockdown. During lockdown, more than 74% of sportspersons had adequate training space, equipment and the time to perform physical activity. However, more than 43% of these sportspersons experienced a decrease in flexibility, muscle mass and muscle strength. Exercise was used as a form of stress relief by 77.1% of sportspersons throughout lockdown. In addition, sportspersons who used exercise as a form of stress relief continued to experience an increase in stress throughout lockdown. Conclusion: The outcomes from this study demonstrated how the COVID-19 lockdown had adverse effects on the overall health and well-being of most sportspersons. Other outcomes included the effects that physical inactivity had among sportspersons, including changes in diet and sleep. Contribution: This study highlights the urgency for the sports fraternity to adopt measures to provide various methods of stress relief (as well as opportunities for physical activity) during similar periods of lockdown (or exercise restrictions) for those who rely on exercise as their daily physical, mental and emotional outlet.

Eating attitudes: the extent and risks of disordered eating among amateur athletes from various sports in Gauteng, South Africa

Background: Preoccupation around eating and disordered eating of professional athletes has extensively been discussed in the literature. However, the extent of disordered eating behaviours at the non-professional or amateur club level in South African sport has not received the same amount of attention. Objectives: This study attempted to determine the extent of disordered eating behaviours among amateur athletes to identify the athletes at risk of developing an eating disorder. Group differences and predictive factors were explored to determine factors associated with disordered eating behaviours among amateur sporting athletes. Methods: A purposive sample of athletes (n = 278) with a mean age of 27 ± 11.30 years, from various sports clubs in Central Gauteng (in and around Johannesburg), were asked to complete the Eating Attitudes Test-26 and Sport Competition Anxiety Test. Data analysis included descriptive statistics, independent samples t-tests, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and logistic regression. Results: The results indicated that 14.7% of athletes were at risk of developing an eating disorder, while some engaged in excessive weight control behaviour which put them at risk. Gender and weight control strategies were important indicators associated with the risk of developing an eating disorder. The athletes' gender, level of participation and body mass index (BMI) were important predictors of the risk to develop an eating disorder. Conclusion: Indicators of eating disorder risk among club-level amateur athletes are gender, binge eating, vomiting and using laxatives to control weight. These behaviours predominately found in female athletes seem to put them at a greater risk of developing an eating disorder

The use of negative pressure wave treatment in athlete recovery

Background: Athletes need to recover fully to maximise performance in competitive sport. Athletes who replenish more quickly and more efficiently are able to train harder and more intensely. Elite athletes subjectively report positive results using lower body negative pressure (LBNP) treatment as an alternate method for rapid recovery, restoring and improving their impaired physical state. Objective data on the efficacy are lacking.Objectives: To investigate the effect of intermittent vacuum therapy on accelerating acute recovery following an athlete's normal daily training schedule of strenuous exercise. Objective measurements of biological markers of muscular fatigue were used to assess recovery.Methods: Twenty-two male cricket players in a randomised cross-over study were divided into a treatment and control group respectively. Following a one-hour high-intensity gym session, the treatment group received three 30-minute LBNP exposure sessions over three consecutive days (0, 24 and 48 hours). Blood lactate and creatine kinase biomarkers were collected to measure the recovery process. After 14 days groups were crossed over and the trial repeated.Results: Heart rate and blood pressure decreased noticeably during treatment, reverting to baseline levels after treatment. Lactate concentrations decreased in both groups after exercise termination; significantly more in the treatment (0.57±0.23 mmol/l) than control group (0.78±0.22 mmol/l), p<0.001). Creatine kinase (CK) was similar in both groups. Athletes' subjective assessments of recovery rated moderately high.Conclusion: LBNP therapy applied as treatment during routine schedule may have a systemic effect in lowering serum lactate levels, but not CK levels. Enhanced recovery of athletes is still unconfirmed

Profile of the female athlete triad among elite Kenyan endurance athletes and non-athletes

Women participating in endurance sports are at risk of presenting with low energy availability (EA), menstrual dysfunction (MD), and low bone mineral density (BMD), collectively termed the female athlete triad (FAT or TRIAD). Therefore, the purpose of the study was to determine the profile of the TRIAD among elite Kenyan female athletes and among non-athletes. There were 39 participants (athletes: 25, non-athletes:14) who provided the data for this study. Exercise energy expenditure (EEE) was deducted from energy intake (EI), and the remnant energy normalized to fat free mass (FFM) to determine energy availability (EA). Weight of all food and liquid consumed during three consecutive days determined EI. EEE was determined after isolating and deducting energy expended in exercise or physical activity above lifestyle from the total energy expenditure output as measured by Actigraph GT3X+. Dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) determined both FFM and BMD. Menstrual function was determined from a daily temperature-menstrual log kept by each participant for nine continuous months. Low EA (<45 kcal/kgFFM.d-1) was evident in 61.53% of the participants (athletes: 28.07 ±11.45 kcal/kgFFM.d-1, non-athletes: 56.97 ±21.38 kcal/kgFFM.d-1). The overall 36% MD seen among all participants was distributed as 40% among the athletes, and 29% among non-athletes. None of the athletes was amenorrheic. Low BMD was seen in 79% of the participants (athletes: 76%, non-athletes:86%). Overall, 10% of the participants (athletes: 4, non-athletes: 0) showed simultaneous presence of all three components of the TRIAD. The Independent sample t-test showed significant difference (t=5.860; p< 0.001) in prevalence of the TRIAD between athletes and non-athletes. The hypothesized higher prevalence of the TRIAD among athletes compared to non-athletes was partially accepted. To alleviate conditions arising from low EA, both athletes and their coaches need regular education on how to ensure they adequately meet specific dietary and nutritional requirements for their competition events

Association between energy availability and menstrual function in elite Kenyan runners

Low energy availability (EA) has been recognized as an instigator of menstrual dysfunction and subsequent hypoestrogenism that leads to deterioration in bone health. Elite Kenyan male athletes have been reported to often function under low energy balance. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine EA and menstrual function (MF) among elite Kenyan female athletes; and to explore the association between EA and MF in the athletes. The data were collected from 25 elite Kenyan runners and 14 non-athletes. Energy intake (EI) minus exercise energy expenditure (EEE) normalized to fat free mass (FFM) determined EA. EI was determined through weight of all food and liquid consumed over three consecutive days. EEE was determined after isolating and deducting energy expended in exercise or physical activity above lifestyle level from the total energy expenditure output as measured by Actigraph GT3X+. FFM was assessed using DXA. A daily temperature-menstrual log kept for nine continuous months was used to establish menstrual function. Overall, EA below 45 kcal/kgFFM.d-1 was seen in 61.53% of the participants (athletes: 28.07 ±11.45 kcal/kgFFM.d-1, non-athletes:56.97 ±21.38 kcal/kgFFM.d-1). Results on menstrual dysfunction were as follows: oligomenorrhea (athletes: 40%; non-athletes: 14.3%) and amenorrhea (non-athletes: 14.3%). None of the athletes were amenorrheic. Results did not show any significant association between EA and MF, but the low to sub-optimal EA among elite Kenyan female athletes raises concern for their future menstrual and bone health. . Educating the athletes and coaches will enhance achievement of the specific dietary and nutritional needs appropriate to their competition events

Valeurs érythrocytaires de jeunes footballeurs en périodes de compétition et de treve au Benin / Erythrocyte values during competition and transition periods in young football players of Benin

Les valeurs érythrocytaires et le statut martial varient en fonction des périodes de la saison chez le sportif de haut niveau. Ces variations chez les pratiquants béninois n'ont jamais été évaluées. La présente étude a pour objectif de comparer le niveau des paramètres érythrocytaires entre de jeunes footballeurs et des non sportifs, en période de compétition et à la fin d'une trêve de 2 semaines. Il s'agit d'une étude prospective et analytique, réalisée sur 20 jeunes footballeurs de troisième division (FB), engagés dans deux compétitions différentes (scolaire et civile) et 25 jeunes non sportifs (NS). Les paramètres érythrocytaires ont été mesurés en simple aveugle, suite à 14 semaines d'entraînement et de compétition (1er prélèvement), puis après une trêve de 2 semaines succédant à 7 autres semaines de compétition (2ème prélèvement). Après les 14 semaines d'entraînement et de compétition, les paramètres étudiés étaient plus élevés chez les footballeurs que chez les non sportifs (p < 0,05). Après les 2 semaines de trêve, les variations entre test et retest ont été non significatives dans le groupe FB, de même que les différences entre les groupes FB et NS (p > 0,05). Les valeurs érythrocytaires des joueurs de football étudiés diffèrent de celles des non sportifs en période de compétition, mais pas en fin de trêve.

Electrocardiographic and echocardiographic findings of Nigerian athletes. A Lagos Study

Summary In a prospective study spanning over 6 months involving one hundred and nineteen male and female subjects comprising 98 Nigerian athletes and 55 age and sex matched controls all had electrocardiography and echocardiographic assessment of left ventricular dimensions and systolic function. Athletes were found to have significant prevalence of bradycardia when compared to the non-athletes. (P=0.03). In addition a greater percentage of the athletes had T wave invertion in the anterior leads (V1-V3) and electrocardiographic features consistent with left ventricular hypertrophy; and first-degree heart block. Athletes were also found to have significantly larger left ventricular end diastolic dimension (p0.01); increased left ventricular posterior wall thickness (p0.01); greater left ventricular mass (p0.01) and left ventricular mass index (p0.01) than the control group. These parameters were found to be significantly higher in each gender category as well. Power trained athletes were found to have greater relative left ventricular wall thickening when compared to the endurance trained athletes. Left ventricular systolic functions of both categories of athletes were found to be within normal limits and better than the control group. None of the athlete had echocardiographic features suggestive of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy