Polyunsaturated fatty acids alter the formation of lipid droplets and eicosanoid production in Leishmania promastigotes

BACKGROUND The knowledge about eicosanoid metabolism and lipid droplet (LD) formation in the Leishmania is very limited and new approaches are needed to identify which bioactive molecules are produced of them. OBJECTIVES Herein, we compared LDs and eicosanoids biogenesis in distinct Leishmania species which are etiologic agents of different clinical forms of leishmaniasis. METHODS For this, promastigotes of Leishmania amazonensis, L. braziliensis and L. infantum were stimulated with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and LD and eicosanoid production was evaluated. We also compared mutations in structural models of human-like cyclooxygenase-2 (GP63) and prostaglandin F synthase (PGFS) proteins, as well as the levels of these enzymes in parasite cell extracts. FINDINGS PUFAs modulate the LD formation in L. braziliensis and L. infantum. Leishmania spp with equivalent tissue tropism had same protein mutations in GP63 and PGFS. No differences in GP63 production were observed among Leishmania spp, however PGFS production increased during the parasite differentiation. Stimulation with arachidonic acid resulted in elevated production of hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids compared to prostaglandins. MAIN CONCLUSIONS Our data suggest LD formation and eicosanoid production are distinctly modulated by PUFAS dependent of Leishmania species. In addition, eicosanoid-enzyme mutations are more similar between Leishmania species with same host tropism.

Coagulopathy and the humoral response against viral proteins in patients at different stages of COVID-19

BACKGROUND Patients with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) often present with coagulopathies and have high titres of circulating antibodies against viral proteins. OBJECTIVES Herein, we evaluated the association between D-dimer and circulating immunoglobulin levels against viral proteins in patients at different clinical stages of COVID-19. METHODS For this, we performed a cross-sectional study involving patients of the first wave of COVID-19 clinically classified as oligosymptomatic (n = 22), severe (n = 30), cured (n = 27) and non-infected (n = 9). Next, we measured in the plasma samples the total and fraction of immunoglobulins against the nucleoprotein (NP) and the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the spike proteins by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) assays. FINDINGS Patients with severe disease had a coagulation disorder with high levels of D-dimer as well as circulating IgG against the NP but not the RBD compared to other groups of patients. In addition, high levels of D-dimer and IgG against the NP and RBD were associated with disease severity among the patients in this study. MAIN CONCLUSIONS Our data suggest that IgG against NP and RBD participates in the worsening of COVID-19. Although the humoral response against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is partially understood, and more efforts are needed to clarify gaps in the knowledge of this process.

Lipid droplets of protozoan parasites: survival and pathogenicity

Lipid droplets (LDs; lipid bodies) are intracellular sites of lipid storage and metabolism present in all cell types. Eukaryotic LDs are involved in eicosanoid production during several inflammatory conditions, including infection by protozoan parasites. In parasites, LDs play a role in the acquisition of cholesterol and other neutral lipids from the host. The number of LDs increases during parasite differentiation, and the biogenesis of these organelles use specific signaling pathways involving protein kinases. In addition, LDs are important in cellular protection against lipotoxicity. Recently, these organelles have been implicated in eicosanoid and specialised lipid metabolism. In this article, we revise the main functions of protozoan parasite LDs and discuss future directions in the comprehension of these organelles in the context of pathogen virulence.

Corpúsculos lipídicos e eicosanoides nos momentos iniciais da infecção com leishmania infantum chagasi / Eicosanoids and lipid bodies in the early stages of infection with Leishmania infantum chagasi

Corpúsculos lipídicos são organelas citoplasmáticas envolvidas na produção de eicosanoides em leucócitos. Eicosanoides como as prostaglandinas têm sido envolvidos no controle da resposta inflamatória e imunológica. A saliva de Lutzomyia longipalpis participa do estabelecimento e desenvolvimento da doença pela modulação das respostas hemostática, imunológica e inflamatória do hospedeiro favorecendo a infecção. Entretanto, o papel dos eicosanoides nos momentos iniciais da infecção por Leishmania ainda não foi esclarecido, assim como a participação da saliva neste contexto. Aqui, nós investigamos o papel dos eicosanoides induzidos pela saliva de L. longipalpis e produzidos pela Leishmania infantum chagasi na infecção. O sonicado de glândula salivar (SGS) de L. longipalis induziu um aumento no número de CLs em macrófagos de maneira dose e tempo dependente, o qual esteve correlacionado com o aumento de PGE2 nos sobrenadante de cultura. As enzimas COX-2 e PGE- intase foram co-localizadas nos CLs induzidos pela saliva e a produção de PGE2 foi reduzida pelo tratamento com NS-398, um inibidor de COX-2. Nós verificamos que o SGS rapidamente estimulou a fosforilação de ERK-1/2 e PKC-α e a inibição farmacológica dessas vias inibiu a produção de PGE2 pelos macrófagos estimulados com SGS. Em seguida, nós avaliamos o efeito da saliva de L. longipalpis sobre a produção de eicosanoides durante a infecção por L. i. chagasi no modelo peritoneal murino. Nós observamos que a saliva aumentou a viabilidade intracelular de L. i. chagasi tanto em neutrófilos como em neutrófilos recrutados para a cavidade peritoneal. As células recrutadas para cavidade peritoneal apresentaram maiores níveis da relação PGE2/LTB4 e o pré-tratamento com NS-398 reverteu o efeito da saliva sobre a viabilidade intracelular dos parasitas. Parasitas como Leishmania são capazes de produzir PGs utilizando uma maquinaria enzimática própria. Neste estudo nós descrevemos a dinâmica de formação e a distribuição celular dos CLs em L. i. chagasi bem como a participação desta organela na produção de PGs. A quantidade de CLs aumentou durante a metaciclogênese assim como a expressão de PGF2α sintase (PGFS), sendo esta enzima co-localizada nos CLs. A adição de ácido araquidônico AA à cultura de L. i. chagasi aumentou a quantidade de CLs por parasita, bem como a secreção de PGF2α. A infecção com as diferentes formas de L. i. chagasi não foi capaz de estimular a formação de CLs na célula hospedeira. Por outro lado, os parasitas intracelulares apresentaram maiores quantidades de CLs. A infecção estimulou uma rápida expressão de COX-2, mas não foi detectado aumento na produção de PGF2α nos sobrenadantes. Por fim, nós verificamos a presença do receptor de PGF2α (FP) nos vacúolos parasitóforos de macrófagos infectados com L. i. chagasi. O prétratamento das células com um antagonista do receptor FP inibiu os índices de infecção de forma dose-dependente. Em conjunto, nossos dados apontam que os eicosanoides desempenham um papel crucial para evasão da resposta imune durante os momentos iniciais da infecção por L. i. chagasi com diferentes contribuições do parasita, do vetor e da célula hospedeira neste contexto.

Diffuse Cutaneous Leishmaniasis (LCD) is a rare clinical manifestation of Leishmaniasis, characterized by a number of macrophages heavily parasitized and low inflammatory reaction. In Brazil, Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis is the main specie involved in LCD cases. It has been described that the exposure and recognition of phosphatidylserine (PS) on the surface of apoptotic cells phagocytosed by macrophages is a macrophage deactivation mechanism dependent on TGF-pi and PGE2 (Fadok et al. 1998). Morover, it was demonstrated by Barcinski and colleagues that L. amazonensis amastigotes expose PS on its surface, in a mechanism called ’’Apoptotic Mimicry." In this context, our goal was to investigate the exposure of PS on the surface of L. amazonensis isolates obtained from LCD patients and its role during the infection of macrophages. Initially, peritoneal macrophages from FI mice (BALB/c x C57BL/6) stimulated with thioglycolate were infected with different L. amazonensis strains isolated from patients with Localized Cutaneous Leishmaniasis (LCL) or LCD. The exposure of PS on the surface of amastigotes was determined by flow cytometry using staining to annexin V and propidium iodide. Isolates from LCD patients showed higher PS exposure than the isolates from LCL patients 24 hours after infection. Then, we evaluated whether the differences of PS exposure in amastigotes would correlate with the infectivity of different isolates. Percentage of infected macrophages and infection index were higher in cultures using amastigotes from LCD patients compared to the ones infected with amastigotes from LCL cases. Furthermore, cultures infected with LCD isolates showed no difference to the LCL isolates regarding TGF>pl and nitric oxide production, suggesting that other immuneregulatory mechanisms are involved in this process...