El papel de la mentalidad de crecimiento en el desempeño de estudiantes de escuela primaria / The Role Of Growth Mindset In Elementary School Children's Performance

Objetivo. Estudiar la relación entre el tipo de mentalidad y el desempeño en comprensión lectora y aritmética de 247 estudiantes de 9 a 12 años de edad de dos escuelas de Argentina. Método. Los participantes completaron un cuestionario basado en una Escala de Mentalidad de Crecimiento y pruebas estandarizadas de comprensión lectora y cálculo aritmético. Además, se utilizaron las calificaciones escolares proporcionadas por docentes y datos sobre el estatus social (ES) aportados por padres/cuidadores. El diseño fue no experimental y transversal. Resultados. Los análisis de regresión jerárquica mostraron que a mayor mentalidad de crecimiento, mejor desempeño escolar, aún al controlar el efecto del ES. La relación del desempeño con las calificaciones fue más fuerte que con las pruebas estandarizadas.

Objective. The aim of the paper was to study the relation between mindset and reading comprehension and arithmetic performance of 247 students aged 9 to 12 years from two schools in Argentina. Method. Participants were asked to complete a questionnaire based on a Growth Mindset Scale, and standardized tests of reading comprehension and arithmetic calculation. In addition, school grades provided by teachers and social status data provided by parents/caregivers were used. The design was non-experimental and cross-sectional. Results. Hierarchical regression analyzes showed that the higher the growth mindset, the better the school performance, even when controlling for the effect of social status on these variables. The relation of performance with grades was stronger than with standardized tests.

Desarrollo y validación del Cuestionario de Funciones Ejecutivas en niños de 9 a 12 años (CUFE) / Development and Validation of the Executive Function Questionnaire (CUFE) for Children aged 9-12 Years / Desenvolvimento e validação do Questionário de Funções Executivas em crianças de 9 a 12 anos (CUFE)

El presente estudio tuvo como objetivo desarrollar y validar el Cuestionario de Funciones Ejecutivas (CUFE), un cuestionario accesible para evaluar las tres principales funciones ejecutivas (memoria de trabajo, inhibición y flexibilidad cognitiva) en niños de 9 a 12 años y, así, proporcionar valores descriptivos de referencia y evidencias acerca de su confiabilidad y validez. Para ello se analizó su funcionamiento en una muestra de 269 niños argentinos de 9 a 12 años de edad, alumnos del segundo ciclo de la escuela primaria. El análisis factorial exploratorio reveló una estructura de tres factores que explicaban 49.08 % de la varianza, con cargas factoriales unidimensionales y satisfactorias. Los factores retenidos presentaron buenos índices de confiabilidad y fueron llamados: memoria de trabajo, inhibición y flexibilidad y con-trol emocional. La memoria de trabajo se asoció con la comprensión lectora, el cálculo matemático y las calificaciones escolares de Prácticas del lenguaje y Matemática. Las restantes dos subescalas se asociaron con las calificaciones escolares de ambas asignaturas. Las dimensiones del cuestionario coinciden con los actuales modelos teóricos de funcionamiento ejecutivo. En función de las evidencias de validez y confiabilidad, el CUFE se presenta como un instrumento ecológico y valioso para la medición de las funciones ejecutivas en el contexto de la evaluación infantil

The present study aimed to develop and validate an accessible questionnaire to assess the three core execu-tive functions (working memory, inhibition, cognitive flexibility) in children aged 9-12 years: the Executive Function Questionnaire (CUFE), and to provide descrip-tive baseline values and evidence about its reliability and validity. The questionnaire was tested on a sample of 269 Argentinean children from 9 to 12 years old. Children attended elementary schools in Mar del Plata's city. The exploratory factorial analysis revealed a three-factor structure that explained 49.08% of the variance. The items were unidimensional and showed satisfactory factor loadings. The retained factors presented good reliability and were called working memory, inhibition and flexibility, and emotional control. Working memory was associated with reading comprehension, mathemat-ical skills, and school grades (language practices and mathematics). Inhibition and flexibility, and emotional control were associated with school grades. The factors were consistent with current theoretical models on executive functioning. Based on the evidence obtained, the cufe represents an ecological and valuable instru-ment for measuring executive functions on children

O presente estudo teve como objetivo desenvolver e validar um questionário acessível para avaliar as três principais funções executivas (memória de trabalho, inibição, flexibilidade cognitiva) em crianças de 9 a 12 anos: o Questionário de Funções Executivas (cufe); e fornecer valores de referência descritivos e evidên-cias sobre sua confiabilidade e validade. Para tanto, foi analisado seu funcionamento em uma amostra de 269 crianças argentinas entre 9 e 12 anos, estudantes do se-gundo ciclo do ensino fundamental. A análise fatorial exploratória revelou uma estrutura de três fatores que explicou 49.08% da variância, com cargas fatoriais unidi-mensionais satisfatórias. Os fatores retidos apresentaram bons índices de confiabilidade e foram denominados Memória de trabalho, Inibição e Flexibilidade e con-trole emocional. A memória de trabalho foi associada à compreensão de leitura, ao cálculo matemático e às notas escolares de Prática de Linguagem e Matemática. As duas subescalas restantes foram associadas às notas escolares de ambas as disciplinas. As dimensões do ques-tionário coincidem com os modelos teóricos atuais de funcionamento executivo. Com base nas evidências de validade e confiabilidade, o cufe apresenta-se como um instrumento ecológico e valioso para a mensuração das funções executivas no contexto da avaliação infantil

Estudio de la memoria de trabajo y la inhibición perceptiva en niños y adolescentes / Study of working memory and perceptual inhibition in children and adolescents

La memoria de trabajo (MT) mantiene y manipula información de manera temporal, por lo que interviene en importantes procesos cognitivos como la comprensión del lenguaje y el razonamiento. La inhibición perceptiva (IP) controla el ingreso de información irrelevante a la MT, permitiendo que acceda información pertinente y no se sature la MT. Por ende, ambos procesos necesitan actuar conjuntamente. En este trabajo se buscó determinar la relación existente entre IP y MT en estudiantes de 4º y 6º año de escuela primaria (de 8-9 y 11-12 años respectivamente) y 3er año de escuela secundaria (15-16 años) de Mar del Plata, Argentina, y comparar el rendimiento de esos grupos. Se encontró que la IP y la MT verbal continuaron mejorando durante la adolescencia, que las modalidades verbal y viso-espacial poseen mecanismos de control específicos, y que la modalidad compleja de la tarea verbal insume mayor control inhibitorio que la simple(AU)

Working memory (WM) is a system that mantains and manipulates information temporally, so it intervenes in important cognitive processes such as language comprehension and reasoning. Perceptual inhibition (PI) prevents irrelevant information from entering WM, allowing access to relevant information and avoiding saturation of WM. Therefore, both processes need to act together. The purpose of this study was to determine the relation between WM and PI in 8- to 9-year-olds and 11- to 12-year-old elementary school students, and 15- to 16-year-old high school students from Mar del Plata, Argentina, and to compare these groups´ performance. Results showed that PI and verbal WM continued to improve during adolescence; also, that verbal and visuospatial modalities possess specific, functionally independent control mechanisms, and that the complex verbal task requires greater inhibitory control than the simple one(AU)

El conocimiento de las fracciones. Una revisión de su relación con factores cognitivos / Fraction Knowledge. A Review Of Their Relationship With Cognitive Factors

Resumen El objetivo de este trabajo es realizar una revisión de la literatura que permita comprender la relación del conocimiento de las fracciones con los factores cognitivos en estudiantes de escolaridad primaria y secundaria. Se realizó una búsqueda de artículos empíricos en las bases de datos Education Research Complete, ERIC, MEDLINE, Primary Search, PsycARTICLES y PsycINFO. Los criterios de inclusión fueron: (a) trabajos empíricos, (b) efectuados con niños de escolaridad primaria o secundaria (de 6 a 18 años de edad), (c) publicados en revistas científicas con referato y (d) redactados en español o inglés. Las investigaciones seleccionadas coinciden respecto de que: (a) la atención predice el conocimiento conceptual y procedimental de las fracciones, (b) el lenguaje y la inteligencia fluida explican el conocimiento conceptual de las fracciones en la etapa inicial de su enseñanza sistemática y (c) el ejecutivo central contribuye a la predicción del conocimiento conceptual de las fracciones en años avanzados de la escolaridad. Se discuten las implicaciones teóricas y prácticas de estos resultados y se señalan posibles líneas de investigaciones futuras.

Abstract Learning fractions presents large difficulties for many children and adults. This is a serious problem, because different studies have shown that fraction knowledge predicts advanced mathematics, like algebra. Adult mathematic knowledge is related to employment opportunities, participation in high-skills occupations and economic and social well-being. Therefore, since fractions represent a backbone in mathematics achievement, understanding the factors that explain fractions learning is very important. Some theories of numerical cognition propose that general cognitive factors, like attention or working memory, contribute to learning mathematics. However, recent research has shown different and contradictory results about which cognitive factors are involved in fraction learning. Identifing the cognitive factors that explain fraction knowledge could lead to early identification of children with potential math learning difficulties and the development of interventions to improve their achievement. Therefore, the aim of this article is to perform a systematic literature review to analyze the relationship among some cognitive factors and fraction knowledge. A systematic literature search could define the state of the art on this topic, identify possible sources of controversy among studies, analyze those reasons to recognize points of agreement and discrepancy among studies and direct all this information towards future research lines. A systematic search of empirical articles was done on Education Research Complete, ERIC, MEDLINE Primary Search, PsycARTICLES, and PsycINFO databases. Search was carried out on September of 2017, with keywords in Spanish and their translation into English. Search terms were "fractions" ("fracciones") and "cognitive ability" ("habilidad cognitiva"), "cognitive processes" ("procesos cognitivos"), "working memory" ("memoria de trabajo"), "attention" ("atención"), "intelligence" ("inteligencia"), "speed of processing" ("velocidad de procesamiento"), "inhibition" ("inhibición") and "language" ("lenguaje"). Articles inclusion criteria were: (a) empirical studies, (b) with scholar age samples (6-18 years old), (c) published on peer review journals, (d) written in spanish or english. Thirteen publications were selected. They agree about attention predicting conceptual and procedural knowledge of fractions between fourth and sixth grade, (b) language and fluid intelligence explains conceptual knowledge of fractions in the initial stage of its systematic teaching, (c) central executive predicts fractions concepts in advanced levels of fraction instruction but not in the initial stages of learning, (d) central executive and fluid reasoning does not predict procedural fraction knowledge when other cognitive factors and mathematical abilities, like attention or whole number calculation skills, are included in the explanation models. In broad terms, these results are in line with some theoretical models of numerical cognition and suggested that cognitive processes and abilities are important to learn fractions. There are some practical implications to these results. Fraction learning could be improved by using pedagogical strategies and didactic materials which maximize cognitive performance. For example, employing novelty and ludic materials for teaching fractions could enable students to focus, maintain attention and improve their learning. Also, short instructions with low linguistic complexity would help students with attention, working memory or language difficulties to afford fractions activities and achieve a meaningful learning. On the other hand, working memory load to perform complex fraction activities would be reduced if basic fraction concept and procedures are consolidated in long term memory. Therefore, before advancing to more complex fractions activities in higher grades, the teacher should verify that the basic notions of fractions have been learnt and memorized by students. To develop theoretical cognitive models of mathematics learning, future research might analyze if cognitive factors contribute to fractions knowledge mainly through direct or indirect effects (that is, via their effects on others areas of math knowledge which affect fraction learning). On the other hand, the tasks used to measure cognitive factors are not always pure, that is, different cognitive operations are involved in their execution. Future studies might work with latent variables that allow the identification of the share variance between cognitive task, and consequently, the main cognitive factors involved in fractions learning.

Influencia de las estrategias cognitivas de regulación emocional en el bienestar subjetivo y psicológico en estudiantes universitarios / Influence of cognitive strategies of emotional regulation in the subjective and psychological well-being of university students

Antecedentes: en los últimos años se ha propuesto que las estrategias cognitivas de regulación emocional (ECRE) tendrían capacidad predictiva sobre distintos indicadores de bienestar, dado que algunas de ellas serían eficientes para elevar directamente la experiencia de emociones positivas y disminuir la experiencia de emociones negativas. Objetivo: el objetivo de esta investigación fue analizar la contribución explicativa del uso de las ECRE para los niveles de bienestar subjetivo (BS) y de bienestar psicológico (BP) en estudiantes universitarios, debido a que esta población se caracteriza por una vulnerabilidad particular producto de las exigencias de la vida académica. Método: se evaluaron 84 estudiantes universitarios de la Licenciatura en Psicología de la Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, con una edad promedio de 23 años. Se realizaron análisis de correlación y de regresión lineal múltiple para analizar los datos. Resultados: se observó que las ECRE adaptativas (ECRE-AD) se asociaron positivamente con ambos tipos de bienestar, en tanto las ECRE no adaptativas (ECRE-NA) lo hicieron en sentido opuesto. Conclusiones: este estudio muestra la contribución explicativa del uso diferencial de las ECRE con los niveles de bienestar de estudiantes universitarios. Los resultados podrían ser un aporte al diseño de programas de promoción y prevención de la salud en esta población, dado que los sentimientos de bienestar influyen en las formas de afrontar las demandas académicas.

Background: in recent years it has been proposed that cognitive strategies of emotional regulation (CSER) would have predictive capacity on different indicators of well-being, since some of them would be effective to directly increase the experience of positive emotions and lessen the negative ones. Objective: this investigation aimed to analyze the explanatory contribution of using CSER to influence the levels of subjective well-being (SWB) and psychological well-being (PWB) in university students, because this population is characterized by its particular vulnerability due to the demands of academic life. Method: eighty-four (84) university students of the psychology program from the National University of Mar del Plata were evaluated, whose average age was 23 years old. Correlation and multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to assess the data. Results: adaptive CSER (CSER- AD) were found to be positively associated with both types of well-being, while non-adaptive CSER (CSER-NA) did so in the opposite direction. Conclusions: this study shows the explanatory contribution of the differential use of CSER in university students' well-being levels. The results could contribute to designing health promotion and prevention programs in this population, given that feelings of well-being influence the coping skills for facing the academic demands.

Autocontrol y desempeño escolar en lengua y matemática / Self-control and school achievement in language and mathematics

Se ha destacado que uno de los aspectos más relevantes para el desempeño académico (DA) de los niños es el AC (autocontrol), definido como la capacidad para modular la cognición, la emoción y el comportamiento. El objetivo de este trabajo es analizar las relaciones entre el AC en el dominio escolar e interpersonal informado por el/la niño/a, sus familiares y docentes; las calificaciones escolares en matemática y prácticas del lenguaje y el desempeño en tareas estandarizadas de comprensión lectora y cálculo aritmético, en 69 niños/as de entre 8 y 12 años de edad. Sólo se encontraron asociaciones entre el AC escolar reportado por el/la docente y el desempeño en la prueba estandarizada de cálculo aritmético. El AC se asoció a las calificaciones académicas en prácticas del lenguaje sólo en 5° grado. Se discuten posibles explicaciones de los resultados y direcciones futuras

It has been highlighted that one of the most relevant aspects related to children's performance in school is self-control, defined as the ability to modulate cognition, emotion and behavior. In this article we analyzed the relationships between self-control in the interpersonal and schoolwork domain reported by the child, their parents and teachers and academic achievement in terms of report card grades in mathematics and language and performance in standardized tasks of reading comprehension and arithmetic calculation, in 69 children between 8 and 12 years of age. We found associations between the self-control in schoolwork domain reported by the teacher and performance in the standardized arithmetic calculation task. Self-control was associated with report card grades in language learning. Possible explanations for this pattern of results and future directions are discussed

Regulación emocional y habilidades académicas: relación en niños de 9 a 11 años de edad / Emotion regulation and academic skills: Relationship in children aged 9 to 11

Resumen Las habilidades académicas constituyen un componente específico del éxito escolar y numerosos factores influyen en su adquisición y consolidación. Uno de estos es la habilidad de regulación emocional de tolerancia al distrés, que se define por la capacidad de resistir esta dos emocionales negativos en pos de un objetivo. El propósito de este trabajo fue analizar la relación entre la tolerancia al distrés y las habilidades académicas de comprensión lectora y cálculo matemático en 107 niños de escolaridad primaria de 9 a 11 años de edad. Los resultados mostraron que la tolerancia al distrés resultó un predictor significativo de la comprensión lectora de textos expositivos y del cálculo matemático, no así de la comprensión lectora de textos narrativos. Es posible que la tolerancia al distrés resulte un factor relevante para el éxito académico en varios dominios.

Abstract Academic skills are a specific component of academic success, and many factors influence their acquisition and consolidation. One of these factors is the ability to emotionally regu late distress tolerance, as defined by the ability to withstand negative emotional states in pursuit of a goal. This paper undertook to analyse the relationship between distress tole rance and reading comprehension and mathematical computations in 107 primary school children aged 9 to 11. The results showed that distress tolerance was a significant predictor of reading comprehension of expository texts and mathematical computations, albeit not so for reading comprehension of narrative texts. Distress tolerance is likely to be a relevant factor for academic success in several domains.

Desempeño en memoria de trabajo e indicadores comportamentales: Relaciones entre medidas directas e indirectas / Relationship between performance in working memory and behavioral indicators observed in class

La memoria de trabajo (MT) es un fuerte predictor del desempeño académico por su impacto en la comprensión lectora, la competencia aritmética y los comportamientos necesarios para el aprendizaje escolar. De modo que saber cómo opera la MT en niños de edad escolar y conocer la percepción que los docentes tienen sobre la MT de sus estudiantes es de gran interés. Por eso, los objetivos del trabajo que se informa fueron evaluar si las observaciones de los docentes sobre las dificultades en la MT de sus alumnos (medidas indirectas) se relacionan con el rendimiento de estos alumnos en pruebas de ejecución de MT (medidas directas) y analizar si estas dificultades percibidas por los docentes se corresponden con la presencia de problemas comportamentales de diversos tipos. Para esto se les administraron a niños de edad escolar pruebas de MT verbal y MT viso-espacial informatizadas, y a sus docentes dos cuestionarios, la Escala Observacional de Memoria de Trabajo -WMRS- y la Guía de Observación Comportamental -GOC-. Los resultados obtenidos muestran asociaciones significativas entre indicadores de fallos en MT y la performance de los niños en la tarea de MT verbal, debidas probablemente a que en los comportamientos explorados en la WMRS el componente verbal está más claramente reflejado (e.g., requiere repeticiones de instrucciones). También se encontró que estos fallos se relacionan con problemas comportamentales reportados por los docentes, como ser dificultades atencionales, hiperactividad y autoagresión. Se considera al estudio realizado como una contribución porque no hay escalas observacionales de MT para uso docente, disponibles en nuestro medio.

Working memory (WM) is a strong predictor of academic performance, due to its impact in reading comprehension, arithmetic's competence and the regulated behaviors required for school learning. Thus, knowing about WM operation in school-aged children and teachers' perception on their students WM is of great value and interest. This is why in the present work we assess whether teachers' reports about their students' WM (indirect measure) is associated with their performance in WM tasks (direct measure), and also to assess whether the difficulties perceived by the teachers correspond to the presence of students' general behavioral issues. For that, we administered computerized verbal WM tasks to school-aged children, in which they had to recall a number of digits (control condition) while saying out loud the color of the items (interference condition), and computerized visual-spatial WM tasks, in which they had to recall the locations of a series of stimuli (control condition) while indicating the color of the stimuli in a color palette (interference condition). We also administered two scales to their teachers: one of them asks about WM specifically (Working Memory Rating Scale) and is composed of 20 short descriptions of behavior problems that allow discriminating between children with poor and average WM skills. The teacher rates how typical a behavior is in each child, in a scale that goes from Not typical at all (0) to Very typical (3). The other asks about diverse behavioral problems (Guide of Behavioral Observation) and is composed of the following subscales: Physical and Verbal Aggression, Negativism, Transgression, Impulsivity, Hyperactivity, Attention Deficit and Acceptance. The teacher must choose the option that best describes the behavior in the child in terms of frequency (Never, Sometimesor Often). Our results show significant associations between children performance in the verbal WM task (direct measure) and WM failures' indicators (indirect measures), which can be explained by the fact that the verbal component is more clearly reflected in the behaviors explored in the Working Memory Rating Scale (e.g., loses his place in complicated activities, requires regular repetition of instructions, depends on neighbor to remind them of the current task). We also wanted to look out if there were associations between the WM skills reported by the teachers and the general behavior problems also reported by them, and we found associations between the reported WM difficulties and attention disorders, hyperactivity and self-aggression. This is consistent with the claim that WM and attention deficit in non clinical population are closely related. With respect to hyperactivity, its relation with WM is not as clear and has not been so frequently reported. With respect to self-aggression, its relation with WM difficulties can be attributed to these children's in ability to exercise control over the environment, which leads to frustration and low levels of motivation and self-esteem. Lastly, we found associations between children's performance in the computerized WM tasks and the presence of behavioral problems informed by the teachers. Specifically, proper performance in verbal WM tasks associates with less attention difficulties, where as proper performance in visual-spatial WM tasks associates with being accepted by the group. This last association could be attributed to the fact that many group games require several abilities that involve visual-spatial WM, such as the ability to orientate in space and recall different locations. To conclude, we consider that this work constitutes a contribution because, in the first place, there are no WM observation scales for teachers' use available in our environment, and, in the second place, it addresses the need for teachers to acknowledge WM difficulties and consequently be trained for the implementation of effective strategies to im prove WM skills in the classroom.

Contribuciones empíricas para la validez de grupos contrastados de la Batería de Tareas de Autorregulación Cognitiva (TAC) / Empirical contributions for contrasting groups validity of the Tareas de Autorregulación Cognitiva (TAC) Battery

Los déficit de las funciones ejecutivas (FE) suelen estar presentes en el Trastorno por Déficit de Atención e Hiperactividad (TDAH). Distintos trabajos mostraron algunas falencias vinculadas a la medición de las FE, como la participación de otros procesos que no constituyen objeto de la evaluación. En el trabajo que se informa se analizaron las diferencias existentes en las FE de niños con y sin diagnóstico de TDAH y se buscó identificar y establecer aquellas variables con mayor poder discriminante para la probabilidad de pertenencia a ambos grupos. Se utilizaron las tareas de la batería denominada Tareas de Autorregulación Cognitiva (TAC), diseñadas ad-hoc para evaluar específica y relativamente en forma independiente cada FE. Se trabajó con una muestra de 49 niños escolarizados de 7 a 12 años de edad, de ambos géneros, divididos en dos grupos, uno clínico de 19 niños con diagnóstico de TDAH, con una media de edad igual a 9.84 años (DE = 1.83) y uno control de 30 niños sin diagnóstico de TDAH con una media de edad igual a 10.27 años (DE = .82), equiparados por género, edad, niveles socioeconómico y educacional. Los resultados mostraron que el análisis discriminante permitió clasificar correctamente al 98% de los participantes. Las tareas mejor discriminadas fueron la de Flexibilidad cognitiva y Control inhibitorio comportamental, con un 98.9% y 97.8%, respectivamente, de casos correctos. Esto muestra que la TAC constituye una batería con adecuada sensibilidad y especificidad para discriminar y detectar casos de TDAH con un elevado nivel de confiabilidad y porcentaje de correctos clasificados.

The executive functions (EF) multidimensional approaches state that EFs consist of a set of processes with relative autonomy and independence: working memory (WM), cognitive flexibility (CF), and inhibition. Regarding the inhibitory operation, three dimensions are distinguished, each with distinct operative features: perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral inhibition. Perceptual inhibition is the process that allows the focus on relevant environmental stimuli through the attenuation of the interference generated by other stimuli present in the context. Cognitive inhibition is involved in the decreased level of activation of the prepotent mental representations of intrusive and irrelevant to the achievement of current goals. Finally, behavioral inhibition handles suppress or cancel behaviors and strong, prepotent and un suitable behaviors. While this last type contributes to the inhibitory control of behavior, the other two processes (cognitive and perceptual inhibition) apply to cognition, as involved in regulating the perceptions and representations. Regarding executive operation in general, empirical evidence suggests that these dimensions are involved in such diverse fields as psychopathology, personality, emotion, attentional control and cognitive development. It has been found that deficits in EFs are usually present in the Attention Deficit Hyper activity Disorder (ADHD). The common practice of treating children with ADHD as an undifferentiated group of participants in behavioral and neuropsychological research may have adverse methodological consequences. Relying on group averaging in comparing the performance of ADHD and control groups may produce misleading results, as it conceals possible effects that may characterize some but not all ADHD participants. According to the previous assumptions, the objectives of this work were (1) analyzing the EF performance in children with or without diagnosed ADHD and (2) identifying and setting the variables with greater discriminant power between the normal and clinical groups. Battery tasks called Tareas de Autorregulación Cognitiva (TAC) ad-hoc and designed to assess EFs operation specifically and with relative independence with each other were used. The sample consisted of 49 school-attending children, aged 7-12 years, of both sexes, divided into two groups: (1) a clinical group of 19 children diagnosed with ADHD combined subtype (M age = 9.84 years, SD =1.83), and (2) a control group of 30 children without ADHD diagnosis (M age = 10.27 years, SD = .82), matched by gender, age, socioeconomic and educational level. By analyzing the results, significant differences were found between verbal and visuospatial WM, CF, behavioral and perceptual inhibition indices. Then, a discriminant analysis was made in order to use the index values with significant differences and make predictions about the probability of a subject to be a member of a certain criteria variable value (clinical or control group condition). Results show that discriminant analysis allows to correctly classifying 98% of the participants. The results indicated that the average RT of the mixed block (Cognitive Flexibility) and the Stop Signal RT (Behavioral Inhibition) are the indices with better sensitivity and specificity for detecting the presence of ADHD in this sample. Considering that the area under the curve indicates the probability to classify correctly a couple of healthy and ill individuals randomly selected, then it is possible to conclude that the values of Cognitive Flexibility and Behavioral Inhibitory control tasks had better discriminant power, as they correctly classified 98.9% and 97.8% of the total cases, respectively. This result shows that the TAC Battery presents adequate sensitivity and specificity to discriminate and detect ADHD with a high level of reliability and classification accuracy. Summarizing, we highlight the importance of having an assessment battery such as the totally computerized TAC, which allows the assessment of EFs independently, with an attractive design and straightforward administering and scoring procedures.

Perspectivas Teóricas y Evidencia Empírica sobre la Inhibición / Theoretical Perspectives and Empirical Evidence on Inhibition / Perspectivas Teóricas e Evidência Empírica sobre a Inibição

La evidencia empírica muestra que la inhibición es un proceso fuertemente implicado en el dominio y la adquisición de competencias sociales, emocionales y comportamentales. Sin embargo, a pesar del acuerdo respecto a su importancia en distintos ámbitos, aún existen divergencias en cuanto a su definición conceptual y operativa. Principalmente, existe un profundo debate en torno a si la inhibición es un constructo unitario o debería fragmentarse en un conjunto de procesos. El objetivo de este trabajo es describir los hallazgos y las posturas más significativas en relación con el estudio de dicho constructo, para lo cual, en primer lugar se hace una propuesta explicativa del control de la interferencia, basada en un enfoque no inhibitorio; en segundo lugar, se describen los modelos más representativos, de 1, 2 y 3 factores para, finalmente, enumerar algunos de los aportes y hallazgos planteados como principal fuente de evidencia a favor del enfoque fragmentado.

Empirical evidence shows that inhibition is a process strongly implicated in the dominion and acquisition of social, emotional and behavioral skills. However, despite the agreement on its importance in various areas, there is still divergence in terms of its conceptual and operational definition. Mainly, a deep debate exists whether inhibition is a unitary construct or must be fragmented into a set of processes. The objective of this study is to describe the findings and the most significant positions in relation to the study of this construct by first, making an explanatory proposal for interference control, based on a non-inhibitory approach; and secondly, describing the most representative 1, 2 and 3 factor models, to finally list some of the contributions and findings proposed as the main source of evidence for the fragmented approach.

A evidência empírica mostra que a inibição é um processo fortemente vinculado ao domínio e à aquisição de competências sociais, emocionais e comportamentais. Contudo, apesar da concordância a respeito de sua importância em diferentes âmbitos, ainda existem divergências quanto a sua definição conceitual e operativa. Principalmente, existe um profundo debate sobre se a inibição é um construto unitário ou deveria fragmentar-se num conjunto de processos. O objetivo deste trabalho é descrever os achados e os posicionamentos mais significativos no que se refere ao estudo desse construto; para isso, em primeiro lugar, faz-se uma proposta explicativa do controle da interferência, baseada num enfoque inibitório; em segundo lugar, descrevem-se os modelos mais representativos, de 1, 2 e 3 fatores para, finalmente, enumerar algumas das contribuições e constatações apresentadas como principal fonte de evidência a favor do enfoque fragmentado.

Predictores cognitivos de la capacidad de planificación en niños de 6 y 7 años de edad / Cognitive predictors of planning ability in 6 and 7 years old children / Preditores cognitivos da capacidade de planejamento em crianças de 6 e 7 anos de idade

La planificación implica la habilidad para identificar y organizar secuencias de acciones con el fin de alcanzar metas específicas. En la literatura se observan resultados dispares respecto de cuáles son los mejores predictores de esta capacidad en niños. Nuestro objetivo en este trabajo fue identificar en qué medida la voluntad de control, el control inhibitorio perceptual, la memoria de trabajo y la inteligencia fluida explican tal capacidad en niños que inician la educación primaria básica. La muestra estuvo conformada por 289 participantes de entre 6 y 7 años de edad. Los resultados indicaron que únicamente la inteligencia fluida y la memoria de trabajo se asociaban y explicaban la capacidad de planificar. Discutimos las implicaciones de estos resultados para el diseño de futuras investigaciones.

Planning involves the ability to identify and organize sequences of actions to achieve specific goals. In scientific literature different results are observed about which are the best predictors of this capacity in children. The aim of this study is to identify to what extent effortful control, perceptual inhibitory control, working memory and fluid intelligence explain this ability in children who start basic primary education. The sample consisted of 289 participants aged between 6 and 7 years old. The results indicated that only fluid intelligence and working memory were associated with and explained planning ability. The implications of these results for the design of future research are discussed.

O planejamento envolve a habilidade de identificar e organizar sequências de ações para alcançar objetivos específicos. Na literatura, são observados resultados diferentes em relação a quais são os melhores preditores dessa capacidade em crianças. O objetivo deste trabalho é identificar em que medida o desejo de controle, o controle inibitório perceptual, a memória de trabalho e a inteligência fluida explicam essa capacidade em crianças que começam a Educação Básica Primária. A amostra foi composta de 289 participantes com idade entre 6 e 7 anos de idade. Os resultados indicaram que apenas a inteligência fluida e a memória de trabalho se associavam e explicavam a capacidade de planejar. Assim, é proposta a discussão das implicações desses resultados para o projeto de pesquisas futuras.

Memoria de Trabajo e Inteligencia Fluida. Una Revisión de sus Relaciones / Working Memory and Fluid Intelligence. A Review of its Relations

Resumen: El objetivo de este trabajo es contribuir a la comprensión de la relación entre la memoria de trabajo y la inteligencia fluida. Para esto se realizó una búsqueda de artículos empíricos en las bases de datos PubMed y Google Académico utilizando una combinación de los términos en español y en inglés memoria de trabajo (working memory) e inteligencia fluida (fluid intelligence). La revisión de la literatura indica que el control atencional y la capacidad de recuperar información de la memoria a largo plazo, serían los procesos a través de los cuales la memoria de trabajo y la inteligencia fluida se relacionan. Sin embargo, existen resultados contradictorios respecto del rol que la retención de la información y que la capacidad de procesamiento de la información presentan en esta relación. Se concluye señalando algunos aspectos metodológicos que mejorarían la comprensión de la relación entre la memoria de trabajo y la inteligencia fluida.

Abstract: The aim of this paper is to contribute to the understanding of the relationship between working memory and fluid intelligence. A search was conducted in PubMed and Google Scholar database using a combination of the Spanish and English terms working memory (memoria de trabajo) and fluid intelligence (inteligencia fluida). The review indicates that attention control and the ability to retrieve information from long-term memory would be the processes through which working memory and fluid intelligence are related. However, there are conflicting results regarding the role of retention of information and information processing capacity in this relationship. We concluded by pointing out some methodological aspects that would enhance the understanding of the relationship between working memory and fluid intelligence.

Rol de las funciones inhibitorias en la memoria de trabajo: evidencia en niños y adolescentes / Role of Inhibitory Functions in Working Memory: Evidence in Children and Adolescents / Rol das funções inibitórias na memória de trabalho: evidencia em crianças e adolescentes

Objetivo. Distintas posturas teóricas han planteado una relación estrecha entre memoria de trabajo (MT) e inhibición. Por ello, el objeto del presente estudio fue analizar el rol que juegan los procesos inhibitorios de inhibición perceptual o acceso, inhibición cognitiva o borrado e inhibición de restricción en el desarrollo de la MT entre los 8 y los 18 años de edad. Método. La muestra estuvo conformada por 277 participantes de la ciudad de Mar del Plata, divididos en tres grupos de edad (8-9 años, 10-12 años y 17-18 años). Los participantes fueron evaluados con una tarea compleja de MT (amplitud de oraciones) que permite obtener, además de la amplitud verbal de la MT, distintos indicadores sobre las funciones inhibitorias. Resultados. Los resultados del estudio mostraron que el desempeño en MT es más elevado en los participantes de mayor edad, siendo significativo el efecto diferencial de la edad sobre la MT. En cuanto a las funciones inhibitorias, se observaron efectos significativos en relación con el tipo de inhibición y grupo de edad. Conclusión. En concordancia con estudios previos, se encontraron relaciones entre la MT y las funciones inhibitorias de acceso y restricción no siendo esta relación influida por la edad.

Objective. Different theoretical positions have posted a close relationship between working memory (WM) and inhibition. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze the role played by inhibitory processes or perceptual inhibition, cognitive inhibition and restraint inhibition in the development of WM between 8 and 18 years. Method. The sample consisted of 277 participants from the city of Mar del Plata divided into three age groups (8-9 years, 10-12 years and 17-18 years). Participants were assessed with a task of WM that provide several indicators of inhibitory functions. Results. Study results showed that performance in WM is higher in older participants, with significant differential effect of age on WM. Significant effects were observed in relation to the type of inhibition and the age group. Conclusion. Consistent with previous studies, a small relationship between WM perceptual inhibition and restraint inhibition, this relationship is mediated by age.

Escopo. Diferentes posturas teóricas tem planteado uma relação estreita entre memória de trabalho (MT) e inibição. Por isto, o objetivo do presente estudo foi analisar o papel desempenhado pelos processos inibitórios de inibição perceptual ou acesso, inibição cognitiva ou apagado e inibição de restrição no desenvolvimento da MT entre os 8 e os 18 anos de idade. Metodologia. A amostra foi conformada por 277 participantes da cidade de Mar del Plata, divididos em três grupos de idade (8-9 anos, 10-12 anos e 17-18 anos). Os participantes foram avaliados com uma tarefa complexa do MT (amplitude de orações) que permite obter, além da amplitude verbal da MT, distintos indicadores sobre funções inibitórias. Resultados. Os resultados do estudo mostraram que o desempenho em MT é mais elevado nos participantes de maior idade, sendo significativo o efeito diferencial da idade sobre a MT. Em quanto às funções inibitórias, foram observados efeitos significativos em relação com o tipo de inibição e grupo de idade. Conclusão. Em concordância com estudos prévios, foram encontradas relações entre a MT e as funções inibitórias de acesso e restrição não sendo esta relação influída pela idade.

El paradigma stop signal como medida de inhibición conductual / The Stop Signal Paradigm: a measure of behavioral inhibition

El Paradigma de la Señal de Parar, Stop Signal en inglés, es uno de los procedimientos más utilizados para medir el control inhibitorio. Su amplia difusión se explica por dos motivos: su extensa aplicación en el ámbito de la neuropsicología clínica y, porque aporta un índice -el tiempo de frenado- que no se obtiene con otros paradigmas o procedimientos. Esta medida, refiere al tiempo que necesita el individuo para inhibir una respuesta preponderante. El cálculo del índice deriva de un modelo clásico de inhibición, el "Modelo de Carrera de Caballos". Sin embargo, el modelo no ha sido suficientemente difundido en nuestro medio, debido a la complejidad de los análisis matemáticos de base y a que la bibliografía disponible en español en este tema es casi inexistente. Por ello, el objetivo de este trabajo es efectuar una revisión sobre este método y presentar algunas de sus aplicaciones en la neuropsicología clínica y de la psicopatología, tales como para el trabajo con pacientes con trastorno bsesivo compulsivo, adicciones, y trastorno de atención, entre otros. MÉD.UIS. 2014;27(3):89-98.

The Stop Signal Paradigm is one of the most used procedures for measuring the inhibitory control. Their widespread diffusion is due to two reasons: its extensive application in the field of clinical neuropsychology and because it provides an index-braking time-that is not accessible with other paradigms or procedures. This index is defined as the time required for inhibiting a dominant response. The method used to calculate this measure is based on a classical model of inhibition: the "Horse Race Model". However, their diffusion is limited in our environment because the available literature in Spanish is poor due to the complexity of mathematical analysis involved. Therefore, the aim of this work is to carry out a review of this method and present some of its applications in the field of clinical neuropsychology and psychopathology, such as working with patients with obsessive compulsive disorder, addictions, and attention disorder, among others. MÉD.UIS. 2014;27(3):89-98.

Función ejecutiva y uso de estrategias semánticas en niños / Executive function and use of semantic strategies in children

El objetivo de este trabajo es analizar el uso de estrategias semánticas en población infantil y el efecto del funcionamiento ejecutivo sobre la frecuencia de uso de estas estrategias. Se trabajó con una muestra de 185 niños escolarizados de escuelas de gestión privada divididos en 4 grupos en función del curso. Los niños realizaron 4 ensayos de aprendizaje analizándose la cantidad de estrategias utilizadas a lo largo de los ensayos así como las diferencias de ensayo a ensayo. Además, se utilizaron diferentes tareas e índices de evaluación de la función ejecutiva. En primer lugar, los resultados muestran que, en la medida que se incrementa el nivel de escolaridad, los niños tienden a implementar un número mayor de estrategias semánticas en tareas de aprendizaje y recuerdo. En segundo lugar, se realizó un análisis discriminado por curso de las curvas de aprendizaje de las estrategias semánticas. Se encontró que, cuando se controlan las variables de funcionamiento ejecutivo, sólo se obtiene un efecto significativo para el factor ensayos, y desaparece la significación estadística tanto en la adquisición y uso de estrategias entre los ensayos en los distintos cursos, como en las diferencias en el total de estrategias empleadas entre los cursos. De este modo, los resultados indican que el funcionamiento ejecutivo puede jugar un rol de importancia en el uso de estrategias de codificación de información en niños.

The aim of this study is to analyze the use of semantic strategies on child population as well as the effect of executive function on frequency use of these strategies. A sample of 185 schooled children in private schools divided in 4 groups according to the level participated in this study. Children performed 4 learning attempts, so the quantity of used strategies along assays as well as differences from assay to assay were analyzed. Moreover, different tasks and assessment indexes about executive function were used. First, results showed that as the school level increases children tend to apply a major number of semantic strategies in learning and memory tasks. Secondly, a discriminate analysis by course of the learning curves of semantic strategies was carried out. It was possible to find that when the executive function' variable is controlled, what is obtained is a significant effect for the assay factor, and the statistic significance disappears on both acquisition and used of strategies between assays in different courses, and on differences in all the strategies used between courses. As a matter of fact, results indicate that executive function can play a roll of importance in use of strategies of coding information in children.

Disponibilidad de recursos materiales en el hogar y adquisición de habilidades pre-lectoras / Availability of resources and the acquisiton of pre-reading skills in the family context / Disponibilidade de recursos materiais e aquisição de habilidades pré-leitoras em contexto familiar

El aprendizaje de la lectura implica un conjunto de factores que hacen posible su adquisición. Entre estos, se destacan el contexto alfabetizador familiar, entendido como el conjunto de los recursos del hogar que abarcan experiencias en las cuales el niño se encuentra en contacto con eventos que involucran la lectoescritura y la disponibilidad de materiales impresos; además de las habilidades y conocimientos prelectores definidos como precursores de la lectura formal, que tienen sus orígenes en las experiencias tempranas de la vida de un niño. El objetivo de este trabajo es explorar y describir las relaciones entre el contexto alfabetizador familiar y el rendimiento en habilidades prelectoras. Para ello se seleccionó una muestra de 88 niños de 5 años de edad, de ambos sexos, y a los cuidadores de los mismos niños a quienes se les administró una entrevista semiestructurada y precodificada denominada Evaluación del Contexto Alfabetizador y la versión en español del Get Ready to Read! Screening Tool de Whitehurst & Lonigan. Los resultados permitieron establecer una asociación estadísticamente significativa entre los índices disponibilidad de recursos materiales vinculados a la lectura en el hogar -especialmente el acceso a medios tecnológicos- y el rendimiento en habilidades prelectoras, demostrando la importancia que tienen para la alfabetización las características del medio ambiente en el que se desenvuelve el niño.

Learning to read involves a number of factors. Among these, we focus on the family context related to literacy. We understand this context as a set of resources, including experiences in which the child is in contact with the events surrounding the literacy and the availability of printed materials, as well as skills and knowledge of pre- reading, identified as precursors of formal reading. In this study we aim to explore and describe the relationships between family background and performance in pre-reading skills. We take, as sample, 88 children 5 years old, both sexes, and their parents. We interviewed the family to evaluate the family context and used the the Spanish version of “Get Ready to Read! Screening Tool” by Whitehurst & Lonigan. The results indicate a statistically significant association between rates of resource availability of reading materials at home - particularly access to technological means - and performance in pre-reading skills. This reveals the importance of the characteristics of environment in which the child grows to the development of literacy.

Aprender a ler envolve um conjunto de fatores. Entre estes, destaca-se a leiturabilidade no contexto da família, entendida como um conjunto de recursos domésticos que incluem experiências em que a criança está em contato com os acontecimentos envolvendo a alfabetização e disponibilidade de materiais; habilidades de pré-leitura e habilidades identificadas como precursoras da leitura formal. O objetivo deste trabalho foi explorar as relações entre os antecedentes familiares e o desempenho de alfabetização em habilidades pré-leitura. Participaram 88 crianças de 5 anos de idade e os seus cuidadores. A eles foram administradas uma entrevista de avaliação de contexto da família e a versão espanhola de Get Ready to Read! Screening Tool. Os resultados indicam uma associação com significância estatística entre as taxas de disponibilidade de recursos materiais de leitura em casa e realização de habilidades pré-leitoras, sugerindo a importância das características do lar para alfabetização.

Análisis de procesos de codificación y recuperación en pacientes conesclerosis múltiple (EM) / Analysis of codification and recovery processes in patients with Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

El objetivo principal de este trabajo fue el estudio exhaustivo de los procesos mnésicos en un grupo de pacientes con diagnóstico de esclerosis múltiple (EM). La teoría clásica sobre el tema considera que en esta patología se producen defectos en los procesos de recuperación de la memoria episódica. Estudios recientes aportan evidencia a favor de una hipótesis alternativa que atribuye el origen del trastorno mnésico a una alteración en los procesos de codificación y organización de la información. El tema es aún hoy objeto de discusión y debate. Por eso en este trabajo se estudió el funcionamiento de estos procesos de codificación y recuperación, para ello se utilizó un conjunto de diversos índices incluidos en el Test de Aprendizaje Verbal España Complutense (TAVEC). Se trabajó con un grupo de 36 pacientes con diagnóstico de EM y un grupo control de población normativa (n=36) emparejados por edad y nivel educacional. Los resultados obtenidos sugieren la existencia de alteraciones en los procesos de codificación y de recuperación mnésicos. Esto nos permite interpretar los defectos en los procesos de recuperación como una disfunción secundaria de la alteración en la codificación y organización de la información.

The primary target of this work was the exhaustive study of memory processes in a group of patients with diagnosis of Multiple Sclerosis (MS). The classic theory considers that in this pathology defects in the processes of recovery of the episodic memory take place. Recent studies contribute evidence in favor of an alternative hypothesis that it attributes the origin of the memory disorder to an alteration in the codification processes and organization of the information. The subject is still today in discussion. For that reason in this work we studied the operation of codification and recovery processes, for it was used the Test of Verbal Learning Spanish Complutense (TAVEC). One worked with a group of 36 patients with I diagnose of command post and a group control of healthy subjects matched up by age and educational level. The obtained results suggest the existence of alterations in the memory processes of codification and recovery. This allows us to interpret the defects in the processes of recovery like a secondary impairment of the alteration in the codification and organization of the information.