Contact with HIV prevention programmes & willingness for new interventions among truckers in India.

Background & objectives: Systematic data on existing coverage and willingness for HIV prevention strategies among truckers are not readily available in India. The present study aimed to further the understanding on contact of truckers with existing HIV prevention services and to assess willingness for new HIV prevention strategies. Methods: A total of 1,800 truck drivers and helpers aged 16-65 yr passing through Hyderabad were approached to assess contact made with HIV prevention programmes, history of previous HIV testing and their acceptance for circumcision, oral HIV testing, new medications to control HIV (PrEP) and telephonic counselling. Dried blood samples were collected on filter paper and tested for HIV. Multiple logistic regression was performed for analysis of association between contact with HIV prevention programme and socio-demographic, sexual risk behaviour variables and work characteristics. Results: A total of 1,602 (89%) truckers gave interview and provided blood sample. Forty five truckers tested positive for HIV resulting in HIV prevalence of 2.8 per cent (95% CI 2.0-3.6%). Only 126 truckers (7.9%; 95% CI 6.5-9.2%) reported ever being contacted by staff providing HIV prevention interventions. Previous HIV testing was reported by19 per cent (95% CI 17.3-21.2%). Those reporting contact with HIV prevention programmes ever were more likely to have undergone HIV testing (odds ratio 3.6, 95% CI 2.4-5.4). The acceptance for pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) was 87 per cent, oral HIV testing 98 per cent, and telephonic counselling 82 per cent, but was only 9 per cent for circumcision.Truckers who reported having sex with a man and those who halted regularly at dhabas were significantly more willing to undergo circumcision for HIV prevention (odds ratios 2.7, 95% CI 1.4-5.4 and 2.1, 95% CI 1.3-3.2, respectively). Interpretation & conclusions: Our findings showed that truckers had low contact with HIV prevention programmes, suggesting a need for urgent measures to reach this population more effectively. The willingness for new HIV interventions was high except for circumcision. These findings could be used for further planning of HIV prevention programmes for truckers in India

Analysis of evaluations of health system/policy interventions in India.

health system/policy interventions done in India is not available. Such analysis can help in conducting more useful evaluations. Methods. We accessed evaluation reports of health system/ policy interventions aimed at improving population health in India, reported during 2001–08, which were available in the public domain through extensive internet searches. We developed and used a classification system for the type of evaluation, commissioning agency, health system/policy area covered and methodology used, and a method for assessing the quality of evaluation reports. Results. Of the 219 total evaluation reports in the public domain, 6% assessed needs, 22% process, 42% outcome and 30% impact. Seventy-six per cent evaluations were commissioned by international agencies. Among health system components, services were the focus of evaluation in 74.9% of reports, with human resources, financing, drugs/products, information system and governance having little representation. Only 21% of evaluation reports were rated as good quality. Among evaluations based mainly on health system data, 42% were poor quality compared with 20% that were based on population data. Seventy-two per cent of the outcome/impact evaluations presented only basic tabulations and just 12% attempted multivariate analysis. Eighty-two per cent of the outcome/impact evaluations had no controls, among which 42% were poor quality versus 17% poor quality among outcome/impact evaluations with controls. Among the 54% evaluations in which the intervention implementer was involved, only 1% reported negative conclusion about the intervention compared with 37% among evaluations in which the implementer was not involved. Conclusion. This analysis of health system/policy intervention evaluation reports from India identifies specific areas that need improvement. We recommend that Indian agencies should commission more evaluations as international agencies currently dominate, involvement of intervention implementer in the evaluation needs scrutiny as potential bias is suggested by our analysis, and health system components other than services need more attention. Outcome/impact evaluations need to incorporate controls in design and multivariate techniques more often in their analysis to achieve higher quality robust evaluations in India.

Inequitable coverage of non-communicable diseases and injury interventions in India.

Background. We examined the inequities in coverage of interventions for non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and injuries in India. Methods. Data collected by the WHO World Health Survey in 6 Indian states in 2003 were used to estimate the coverage of interventions for NCDs and injuries. Coverage was defined as the proportion of individuals who reported receiving the intervention among those in need of it. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to assess inequities in coverage of interventions. Composite coverage was calculated for each state and assessed against expenditure on health. Results. The composite coverage of interventions for NCDs and injuries for all states combined was 43.9% (95% CI 43.0%–44.8%), and was higher in urban than in rural areas. Lower wealth quintiles had higher odds of being in need of interventions but lower odds of being covered. Overall, the highest quintile had composite coverage of 54.5%, compared with 34.1% for the lowest quintile. The states with lower coverage of interventions had a higher proportion of households reporting selling items or borrowing money to cover health expenditure; this proportion was highest (58.8%) in Rajasthan state that had the lowest composite coverage (36.6%). Conclusion. The higher need for and lower coverage of interventions for NCDs and injuries in the poor, and the associated high risk of further adverse economic impact due to health spending, suggest that the public health system of India should improve access to these interventions at no cost for the economically disadvantaged.

HIV testing among adults in a high prevalence district in India.

Background. HIV testing is a key component of HIV control efforts. We examined the distribution of HIV testing in a population-based sample from Guntur district in Andhra Pradesh, which is estimated to have one of the highest prevalence rates of HIV in India. Methods. A total of 12 994 persons (15–49 years of age) were interviewed in Guntur district. We assessed associations with the uptake of HIV test, place and reasons for undergoing HIV testing and awareness of voluntary counselling and testing centres (VCTC) among sexually active adults. Results. The age-, sex-, urban- and rural-adjusted prevalence of HIV testing was 21.1% (95% CI: 19.1–23.2). The uptake of HIV test was higher in women (27.2%) than in men (18.8%). Increasing education level, urban area residence and being in an occupation requiring mobility were significantly associated with uptake of the HIV test. A previous test for HIV was reported by 37.8% of men and 30.3% of women. The adjusted prevalence of VCTC awareness was 5.4% (95% CI: 4.3–6.4), being higher in men (9.2%) than in women (3.5%). Among those who had undergone HIV testing, 83.9% of men and 76.2% of women did so at a private sector health facility. Women were significantly more likely to under-go testing at VCTC/public sector facility (23.5%) than men (15%). More men (47.6%) than women (3.3%) reported undergoing testing voluntarily (p<0.001). Women reported pregnancy (57.4%) as the most common reason for undergoing the test. Conclusion. These population-based data highlight the patterns of HIV testing and their associations. The high proportion of HIV testing in the private sector suggests the need to strengthen counselling in this sector to enhance HIV prevention activities.

Access to condoms for female sex workers in Andhra Pradesh.

BACKGROUND: Condoms are an essential part of comprehensive HIV prevention and care programmes. We report the accessibility of male condoms for female sex workers (FSWs) and the associated characteristics that may play a major role in determining access to condoms for FSWs. METHODS: Confidential interviews of 6509 street- and home-based FSWs in 13 districts of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh provided data on the number of paying clients and various aspects of access to free condoms and purchase of condoms. Access to condoms was defined as having ever obtained condoms either through free distribution or through purchase. Multivariate analyses were done separately for street- and home-based FSWs to describe correlates of their access to condoms. The requirement of condoms was assessed based on the number of paying clients during the past 15 days. RESULTS: Data on condom access were available for 6465 (99.3%) FSWs. A total of 2850 (44.1%; 95% CI: 36.2%-52.0%) reported accessing free condoms ever and 2336 (36.1%; 95% CI: 30.6%-41.6%) had purchased condoms ever (not mutually exclusive). The primary sources for condoms were non-governmental organization facilities (73.8%) and pharmacies (79.7%) for free and purchased condoms, respectively. A total of 3510 (54.3%; 95% CI: 48.5%-60.1%) FSWs reported no access to free or purchased condoms during the past 15 days, and this no access was significantly higher for those > 30 years of age, with no schooling, street-based FSWs, and with no participation in a FSW support group (p < 0.001 for each in univariate analysis). Participation in a FSW support group was the main predictor of access to free condoms for both types of FSWs during the past 15 days with multivariate analysis. Condom requirements during the past 15 days were met for 67.5% of FSWs who had accessed only free condoms and for 33.8% of those who had accessed only purchased condoms. CONCLUSIONS: One-fourth of FSWs had never accessed condoms, and a little over half of those who had ever accessed reported no access during the past 15 days. Condom requirements were not met for three-fifths of the FSWs. HIV prevention programmes need to Increase access to free condoms for FSWs in Andhra Pradesh as access to condoms is a necessary prerequisite for condom use.

Making road safety a public health concern for policy-makers in India.

BACKGROUND: Road traffic injuries contribute substantially to the disease burden in India. This paper describes the road safety issues discussed by members of the Indian Parliament, and highlights the gaps that need to be addressed to make road safety visible as a public health problem to policy-makers in India. METHODS: All questions asked to and information provided by the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, and questions relating to accident asked to the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare of the Government of India were reviewed for the two Houses of the Indian Parliament for the years 2002 to 2004. RESULTS: Of the 1529 questions asked to the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, only 140 (9.1%) were related to road safety, whereas 1076 (70.5%), 181 (11.8%), 51 (3.3%) and 81 (5.3%) were related to other aspects of the national highways, state roads, vehicles and other issues, respectively. Data on the magnitude of road crashes dealt only with the number of crashes and fatalities and not with the age, sex and type of road users affected by road traffic injuries. The parliamentarians were informed that human error was the main cause of road crashes in India; however, the robustness of this information is questionable. Strategies to prevent road crashes focused mainly on training of drivers with little attention to other factors that cause road crashes. The discussion on legislations also focused on drivers, ignoring other road users. Ten of the 4741 questions (0.2%) asked to Ministry of Health and Family Welfare were related to accident, the majority of which were about the setting up of trauma care services. CONCLUSION: An appropriate policy and intervention response by policy-makers is not possible with data that are presented in a manner that do not highlight the true nature of the problem, and are neither comprehensive nor robust. Majority of the proposed road safety interventions by the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways are based on the traditional view of human error as a major cause of road crashes highlighting the lack of a scientific public health approach towards prevention of road crashes. It would be useful to build the technical capacity of the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways in road safety to use the available data more effectively, and to facilitate generation of further relevant data about the magnitude, underlying causes and impact of road traffic injuries, for policy-makers to better understand the critical issues for planning effective road safety policies and interventions to reduce the high burden of mortality and morbidity due to road crashes in India.

Utilization of and barriers to public sector tuberculosis services in India.

BACKGROUND: Tuberculosis control in India still faces many challenges related to the provision of services under the Directly Observed Treatment, Short-course (DOTS) strategy. We assessed the utilization of and barriers to the Revised National Tuberculosis Control Programme (RNTCP) services based on DOTS in 4 states of India, and recommend actions to optimize utilization of the RNTCP services. METHODS: Two districts each in 4 states with more than 50% of the population covered under the RNTCP in 2002, representing diverse levels of general health indicators, were selected. Sex-disaggregated data on patients who reported to the RNTCP facilities for the diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis in 2002 were reviewed from the laboratory and tuberculosis registers to assess the utilization of these services. Data on barriers to utilization of the RNTCP services were collected through interviews of 4310 patients with tuberculosis who were 16 years of age or older. RESULTS: A total of 83,099 patients had reported for the diagnosis of tuberculosis in the study areas, of whom 29,279 were women (35.2%). The proportion of sputum-positive diagnosis was lower in women (10.8% [95% CI 10.5%-11.1%]) than men (17% [95% CI 16.7%-17.3%]). For the treatment of tuberculosis, 21592 patients were registered in the study areas; 6789 were women (31.4%). Among new smear-positive tuberculosis patients, 79.9% of women (95% CI 78.4%-81.4%) and 74.4% of men (95% CI 73.4%-75.4%) were cured. Multivariate analysis revealed that the odds of not completing the process of diagnosis of tuberculosis were significantly higher for patients > 50 years of age, those who were never married or married currently, those with symptoms for < or = 15 days, those who had gone alone for diagnosis, and those who were not informed about a suspicion of tuberculosis by the health personnel at the time of diagnosis. Among the reasons for not completing the process of diagnosis of tuberculosis, health provider-related barriers were cited most frequently (45.9%), followed by improvement in symptoms. Health provider-related barriers were also cited most frequently (40.4%) by those who had completed the process of diagnosis but did not start treatment in the RNTCP facility. On multivariate analysis, the odds of not completing the treatment of tuberculosis were significantly higher for men, those who were ever married, those who were not informed that tuberculosis was curable, those who were not informed of the duration of treatment at the time of starting treatment, those who were dissatisfied with the DOTS provider, and those who had health facility staff as the DOTS provider compared with those who had an anganwadi/health worker. Medicine-related barriers were cited most frequently by patients who had defaulted in the intensive (37.1%) or continuation (23.1%) phase of treatment. CONCLUSION: Of the persons utilizing the RNTCP services, about one-third are women. The health services-related factors indicated in the multivariate analysis for less than optimal utilization of the RNTCP services, and the health provider-related and treatment-related barriers to utilization of the RNTCP services at various levels cited by the patients suggest the need to adopt a patient-centred approach to improve utilization of the RNTCP services.

Deaths due to road traffic crashed in Hyderabad city in India: need for strengthening surveillance.

BACKGROUND: Road traffic crashes are an important cause of death and disability in India. Reliable and accurate data are necessary to plan strategies to reduce death and disability due to road traffic crashes. We assessed the utility of the available data on deaths due to road traffic crashes for road crash surveillance for a major metropolitan city of southern India. METHODS: We analysed the Department of Police database on deaths due to road traffic crashes for 2002 in Hyderabad, southern India and collected data from a leading newspaper for the same information using a standardized format. RESULTS: A total of 3039 cases of road traffic crashes were recorded in the police database for 2002, including 400 cases (13.2%) in which 411 people were killed. In the same year, 316 cases of road traffic crashes resulting in 353 deaths were reported in the newspaper. The majority of those who died due to these crashes were males. Seventy per cent of those killed were between 16 and 49 years of age. Pedestrians and riders of two-wheelers were the most vulnerable. Collision with a vehicle caused 86.4% of all crashes and 60% of the victims died before reaching a hospital. The available data were not comprehensive enough to provide a thorough basis for planning intervention strategies to reduce fatalities due to road crashes. CONCLUSION: Despite the gaps in reporting of fatalities in road traffic crashes in these data sources, they provide insights into the magnitude and nature of deaths resulting from such crashes in Hyderabad. The available data have limitations and there is a need for strengthening the road traffic crash surveillance system to have reliable, accurate and adequate data on road traffic crashes and the resulting fatalities and injuries. These could then form the basis for planning effective intervention strategies to improve road safety.

Fear of blindness and perceptions about blind people. The Andhra Pradesh Eye Disease Study.

This study assessed the fear of being affected by illness and disability including blindness, and perceptions of the population towards blind people in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. A total of 11,786 subjects of all ages were sampled from 94 clusters in one urban and three rural study areas of Andhra Pradesh using stratified, random, cluster, systematic sampling to represent the population of this state. A total of 10,293 subjects of all ages underwent a detailed interview and dilated ocular evaluation. Subjects > 15 years of age (7,432) were interviewed regarding fear of illness/disability and their perceptions of blind people. The fear of blindness was assessed in comparison to cancer, severe mental illness, heart attack, losing limbs, deafness, inability to speak, and paralysis. A majority of the study population feared all the illnesses and disabilities assessed. The prevalence of fear of blindness was 90.9% (95% confidence interval 89.1-92.8%) and 92.1% (95% confidence interval 90.6-93.6%) in urban and rural study areas respectively. With multiple logistic regression the fear of blindness was significantly higher for those with any level of education and for those living in the rural study areas. The proportion of those having positive feelings towards blind people was higher in the urban study area. A high prevalence of blindness, 1.84%, has been reported in this population previously. These data suggest that this population feared blindness, and yet there is a high rate of blindness. This reflects the need for increasing awareness about blindness in this population through eye health promotion strategies in order to reduce blindness, and awareness regarding the availability of rehabilitation services.

Population-based study of spectacles use in southern India.

This study assessed the use of spectacles and its demographic associations in a sample representative of the population of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. A total of 11,786 subjects of all ages were sampled from 94 clusters in one urban and three rural study areas of Andhra Pradesh using stratified, random, cluster, systematic sampling. The eligible subjects underwent detailed interview and eye examination including dilated examination of the posterior segment. The data on the use of spectacles were analysed for subjects > 15 years of age. A total of 7,432 subjects > 15 years of age participated in the study of whom 1,030 (13.8%) had a refractive error of spherical equivalent +/- 3.00 Diopter or worse. The prevalence of current use of spectacles in those with spherical equivalent +/- 3.00 Diopter or worse, who were likely to be visually impaired without refractive correction, was 34.2% (95% confidence interval 30.3-38%) and of previous use of spectacles was 12.3% (95% confidence interval 10.3-14.3%). The odds of using spectacles currently were significantly higher for those with any level of education, those living in the urban area, and for those with aphakia or psuedophakia as compared with natural refractive error. Among those who had used spectacles previously, 43.8% had discontinued because they felt that either the prescription was incorrect or that the spectacles were uncomfortable, suggesting poor quality of refractive services, and another 19.6% had lost the pair and could not afford to buy another pair. These data suggest that the use of spectacles in this population by those with refractive error was not optimal. Two-thirds of those with spherical equivalent +/- 3.00 Diopter or worse were not using spectacles. Of those who had discontinued the use of spectacles, a significant proportion did so for reasons related to poor quality of refractive services. Strategies such as vision screening programmes and eye health promotion need to be implemented, the quality of refractive services monitored and the cost of spectacles regulated, if the substantial burden of visual impairment due to refractive error in this population is to be reduced.