Iniencephaly and anencephaly with spinal retroflexion: a comparative study of twelve human specimens

To study the degree of retroflexion of the cervical spine and the congenital malformations present in cases of iniencephaly and anencephaly. Twelve stillborn fetuses were examined. Those with anencephaly are prefixed by AN and serially numbered from 1 to 8, and those with iniencephaly are prefixed by IN and serially numbered from 1 to 4. The specimens were fixed in 25% formaldehyde. Anteroposterior and lateral plain x-ray of the whole body were taken four weeks after fixation. Necropsies were performed and the anomalies observed were recorded and photographed. According to the length of the neck and the direction of the face, retroflexion of the cervical spine was classified into severe, moderate and mild forms. Retroflexion was severe in 2 cases [IN1, IN2], moderate in one [IN3] and mild in eight [IN4, AN1-4]. The associated malformations affected most organs systems and comprised left diaphragmatic hernia in six cases, broad base of the nose in nine specimens, absent left kidney and hypoplastic lungs in two cases, Fallots tetralogy and patent foramen ovale in one case each. The presence of cervical retroflexion and numerous similar congenital malformations justify a comparative study on twelve cases of iniencephaly and anencephaly. The appearance of the cranial cavity and the brain and the frequent occurrence of caudal myelocele in iniencephaly suggests a different time of onset of these two classes of malformation. This largely reflects the closure of the ends of the neural tube at different times

Cyclopia: a case study and review

A neonatal, human female cyclopic specimen, with brain exhibiting lobar holoprosencephaly was examined by detailed anatomical dissection. In addition to the pachygyric appearance of the cerebrum, the diencephalon failed to attain its normal position in relation to the cerebral hemispheres. The ethmoid bone was the focal point of skull malformations. Possible mechanisms for the generation of the malformations are discussed. Cyclopia is a monostrity that combines lack of separation of the eyes with lack of cleavage of the prosencephalon. The resulting undivided telencephion with a single ventricular cavity was called a holosphere[1] in contrast to the normal hemispheres with symmetrical lateral ventricles. The term holoprosencephaly, which is widely used now-a days to indicate impaired midline cleavage of the embryonic forebrain, is commonly associated with various gradations of facial dysmorphism including cyclopia, ethmocephaly and cebocephaly. According to its severity, holoprosencephaly has been graded into alobar, semilobar or lobar[2]. In cyclopia, a blind-ended proboscis usually occurs above the eye. In some instance, the proboscis may be absent[3]. In cyclopia, the anterior cranial base has been described as being shortened, roofing a medially placed orbital cavity. The ethmoid and the middle portion of the sphenoid are said to be absent. Also described as missing are the nasal bone, turbinates, vomer, lacrimal bones and premaxilla[4]. The present study examines in detail the gross anatomical abnormalities in a case of cyclopia. Special attention was made to the brain and eyes

Multiple congenital anomalies associated with oligohydramnios

The necropsy examination of two cases with multiple congenital anomalies is presented. Each of the two cases was the product of a pregnancy which was complicated by oligohydramnios. Some of the anomalies seen in the two cases are postulated to result from an early constraint defect secondary to the associated oligohydramnios. Speculation of the possible underlying etiology is discussed and review of the literature is given. A congenital defect is not necessarily the result of a single etiological factor but may be influenced by hereditary or genetic and / or environmental influences. At present it is estimated that approximately ten percent of all known human malformations are caused by environmental factors and another ten percent by genetic factors; the remaining 80 percent are undefined and presumably caused by the intricate interplay of both genetic and environmental factors.] This paper reports two cases with multiple congenital anomalies which are presumed to be the outcome of both genetic and mechanical environmental factors acting during early development

study of the ligaments and muscles associated with the menisci of the human knee joint with special reference to function: a possible complementary effect of popliteus and semimembranosus

The ligaments and muscles attached to the medial and lateral menisci were dissected in fifty knees from adult and infant cadavers. Observations were made on the incidence of the ligaments. Their possible functions are considered and it is suggested that popliteus and semimembranosus may have a complementary effect on the lateral meniscus