ABSTRACT
Mayaro virus is an emergent alphavirus that infects humans, leading to Mayaro fever. Approximately fifty percent of infected patients develop arthritis symptoms in the recovery phase, a phase that can last up to a year. The literature about Mayaro virus infection and its immune response is scarce, which may hamper the development of treatment strategies. We summarize changes in cytokines and chemokines in the acute and recovery phase in Mayaro virus infected patients, and relate this molecular characterization with the immune response. VEGF and IL-12/p70 show pronounced changes in patients in the acute phase, suggesting the development of cellular immunity and Th1 response. IL-6, IL-7, CXCL8/IL-8, IL-13, IL-17, and IFN-γ are elevated in patients with arthritis symptoms in the long-term recovery phase, which may be related to the continuous inflammatory process, a possible Th2 inhibiting and promoting Th17 process. Although few studies discuss the issue, with a small number of patients and different backgrounds, inflammatory and immune response and manifestations seem to be closely linked. This information may help to develop the appropriate treatment strategies in Mayaro virus infection. Therefore, we analyzed and summarized data available in literature.
ABSTRACT
Objective: To evaluate the influence of fruiting phenological stage on total flavonoid content, antioxidant activity, and antiproliferative effects of Cereus jamacaru (C. jamacaru) (mandacaru) cladodes and fruit. Methods: Fruit and cladodes at vegetative and fruiting stage of C. jamacaru were collected. The fruit was dissected and bark, pulp, and seeds were separated. Vegetative and fruiting cladodes, together with bark, pulp, and seeds were used to obtain five hydroalcoholic extracts. The extracts were investigated for total flavonoid content, using AlCl3 colorimetric method, antioxidant activity by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl and 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) radical scavenging capacity and Fe2+ ion chelating activity, and in vitro antiproliferative effects (sarcoma 180 cells) by 3-(4,5- dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide assay. Results: The extract of C. jamacaru cladodes at the fruiting stage showed higher flavonoid content compared to the other extracts. Seed extracts showed the highest antioxidant activity in 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl and 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) assays, and the extract of cladodes at vegetative stage showed better antioxidant activity in Fe2+ ion chelating activity. The extract of fruiting cladodes promoted higher antiproliferative effects compared to the other extracts. Conclusions: These findings suggest that fruiting increases the content of flavonoids and antiproliferative effects of C. jamacaru cladodes. Data reinforce the potential use of C. jamacaru cladodes and fruits as natural antioxidants and potent anticancer agent.