ABSTRACT
Nowadays prevalence of diabetes mellitus [DM] is growing considerably, especially among young and obese people. It was estimated that nearly 7% of the people all over the world suffer from DM. Frequency of diabetes related complication such as diabetic foot may be enhanced by increasing longevity of diabetic patients. Foot ulcer is one of the most considerable complications of DM which may involve 15% of these patients during their life. Peripheral neuropathy, poor blood circulation and low resistant against infections are three main predisposing factors in development of diabetic foot. In the presence of these factors, deformity of the foot or any minor trauma may lead to ulceration and infection. Ulcer, infection, Charcot neuropathy and peripheral arterial disease in lower extremity may result in gangrene and amputation of limb. Foot ulcer and its complications associated with admission to hospital, increasing cost of treatment and finally disability of patients. Appropriate treatments for diabetic foot are infection control, reconstruction of blood supply if possible, decrease in pressure on the affected limb and enhancement of ulcer repair with surgical interventions. Although it is impossible to prevent all diabetic foot complications, but with establishment of appropriate therapeutic approaches, most of these complication are curable and also may decrease number of limb amputation
ABSTRACT
Vesicoureteral reflux [VUR] is a relatively common and important entity in children. VUR can expose patient to risk of pyelonephritis, permanent renal damage or scar. VUR itself has no deleterious effect on kidney parenchyma until the development of infection or increased intravesical pressure. The diagnosis of VUR could lead to appropriate therapy and prevention of long term complications. There are several diagnostic procedures for diagnosis of VUR, Conventional Voiding Cystourethrography [VCUG] and Direct Radionuclide Cystography [DRC] are most popular of them. Although DRC has advantages such as higher sensitivity and lower radiation, conventional VCUG remain as a helpful diagnostic tool both for excellent anatomical image and quantitave subjective grading system. Most physicians suggest performing VCUG for male patient in first assessment and DRC for later studies. In females, some advice to follow same as male children but most clinicians tends to apply DRC at start of assessment. There are some limitations for two mentioned test despite such advantages. Insertion of urinary catheter had some potential hazards for patient and distress for parents and child. Two special studies microwave radiometry and indirect radionuclide cystography is newer tools that could diagnose VUR without catheterization. These two tests are not standardized yet and remained to be less popular. Another limitation is exposure even low dose to radiation. MR VCUG and Cystosonography are two new procedures that had lowest if any radiation exposure, However these two tests also need further investigation and subjective standardization