Emerging Trends in the Treatment of Advanced Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Radiological Perspective

This is a narrative review of various treatment modalities for advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), with a focus on recent updates in radiological treatments, as well as novel treatment concepts related to immune checkpoint inhibitors and combination therapies with locoregional treatments. Interventional radiologists have made efforts toward developing alternative and/or combination treatments for first-line systemic treatment of patients with advanced HCC. Locoregional treatments with or without systemic therapy may be considered in the selected patients. Various treatment modalities for advanced HCC are emerging, and several randomized controlled trials, including those of combination treatments with immunotherapy, are ongoing.

Update on Transarterial Chemoembolization with Drug-Eluting Microspheres for Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Conventional transcatheter arterial chemoembolization (c-TACE) is a widely used first-line palliative treatment for patients with unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Despite the effectiveness of c-TACE, to date, technique and procedure scheduling has not yet been standardized. Drug-eluting microspheres (DEMs) were therefore introduced to ensure more sustained and tumor-selective drug delivery for permanent embolization. These DEMs can load various drugs and release them in a sustained manner over a prolonged period. This approach ensures the delivery of high concentrations of chemotherapeutic agents to tumors, without increasing systemic concentrations, and promote tumor ischemia and necrosis. This review summarizes the recent advances in the use of DEM-TACE to treat HCC.

Percutaneous Thrombin Injection for the Treatment of Post-Procedural Iatrogenic Pseudoaneurysms

PURPOSE@#To report our clinical experience of thrombin injection for iatrogenic pseudoaneurysms of peripheral arteries with or without balloon dilatation and coil embolization as adjunctive techniques.@*MATERIALS AND METHODS@#A total of 10 patients undergoing thrombin injection for iatrogenic pseudoaneurysms from September 2007 to June 2017 were retrospectively investigated. The causative procedures, location of pseudoaneurysms, and complications were recorded, and technical and clinical success rates of the treatment were assessed.@*RESULTS@#The femoral and brachial arteries were treated in eight and two patients, respectively. Technical success was confirmed in all cases, and a clinical success rate was 70% (7/10) was noted. Two patients presented with a complication of acute thrombosis at the distal arteries. In 7 patients, balloon occlusion was performed before injection of thrombin to prevent the spread of thrombin. Coil embolization of the distal branch was also performed in one of these patients.@*CONCLUSION@#For pseudoaneurysms of the femoral and brachial arteries that develop after various vascular procedures, thrombin injection is a safe and efficient treatment choice. In some cases, where there is concern for thrombin leakage, balloon occlusion and coil embolization could be performed together.

Ultrasound-Guided Intraoperative Radiofrequency Ablation and Surgical Resection for Liver Metastasis from Malignant Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effectiveness, safety, and feasibility of intraoperative radiofrequency ablation (IORFA) under ultrasound guidance for the treatment of liver metastases from gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs). MATERIALS AND METHODS: From August 2009 to February 2017, 24 patients with liver metastases of GISTs underwent IORFA, 14 underwent concurrent IORFA and primary GIST resection, and 10 underwent IORFA to treat hepatic recurrence after previous primary GIST resection. Seventy-six hepatic metastases were treated, of which 47 were surgically resected and 29 underwent IORFA. All included patients received imatinib therapy as standard treatment before and after IORFA or surgical resection. A retrospective medical record review was conducted, and follow-up data were collected. Technical success and effectiveness, overall and GIST-specific survival, and complications were assessed. RESULTS: The mean follow-up duration was 50.7 ± 34.7 months. The technical success rate of IORFA was 100%. New metastases developed in three of the 24 patients (12.5%) following a complete response 16, 51, and 95 months after IORFA, respectively. The cumulative one-, three-, and five-year overall survival rates were 100, 94.4, and 87.7%, respectively. The one-, three-, and five-year GIST-related survival rates were 100, 94.4, and 94.4%, respectively. Two major complications (biliary stricture and hepatic abscess) were observed. CONCLUSION: IORFA appears to be a feasible and safe treatment option for liver metastasis in patients with primary GISTs. In addition, IORFA and surgical resection may be complementary, helping to obtain complete response in cases of otherwise inoperable liver metastases secondary to GISTs.

Percutaneous Metallic Stent Placement for Palliative Management of Malignant Biliary Hilar Obstruction

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the outcomes of percutaneous metallic stent placements in patients with malignant biliary hilar obstruction (MBHO). MATERIALS AND METHODS: From January 2007 to December 2014, 415 patients (mean age, 65 years; 261 men [62.8%]) with MBHO were retrospectively studied. All the patients underwent unilateral or bilateral stenting in a T, Y, or crisscross configuration utilizing covered or uncovered stents. The clinical outcomes evaluated were technical and clinical success, complications, overall survival rates, and stent occlusion-free survival. RESULTS: A total of 784 stents were successfully placed in 415 patients. Fifty-five patients had complications. These complications included hemobilia (n = 19), cholangitis (n = 13), cholecystitis (n = 11), bilomas (n = 10), peritonitis (n = 1), and hepatic vein-biliary fistula (n = 1). Clinical success was achieved in 370 patients (89.1%). Ninety-seven patients were lost to follow-up. Stent dysfunction due to tumor ingrowth (n = 107), sludge incrustation (n = 44), and other causes (n = 3) occurred in 154 of 318 patients. The median overall survival and the stent occlusion-free survival were 212 days (95% confidence interval [CI], 186−237 days) and 141 days (95% CI, 126−156 days), respectively. The stent type and its configuration did not affect technical success, complications, successful internal drainage, overall survival, or stent occlusion-free survival. CONCLUSION: Percutaneous stent placement may be safe and effective for internal drainage in patients with MBHO. Furthermore, stent type and configuration may not significantly affect clinical outcomes.

Double-Stent System with Long Duodenal Extension for Palliative Treatment of Malignant Extrahepatic Biliary Obstructions: A Prospective Study

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the technical safety and clinical efficacy of a double-stent system with long duodenal extension in patients with malignant extrahepatic biliary obstruction. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This prospective study enrolled 48 consecutive patients (31 men, 17 women; mean age, 61 years; age range, 31–77 years) with malignant extrahepatic biliary obstructions from May 2013 to December 2015. All patients were treated with a double-stent system with long duodenal covered extension (16 cm or 21 cm). RESULTS: The stents were successfully placed in all 48 patients. There were five (10.4%) procedure-related complications. Minor complications were self-limiting hemobilia (n = 2). Major complications included acute pancreatitis (n = 1) and acute cholecystitis (n = 2). Successful internal drainage was achieved in 42 (87.5%) patients. Median patient survival and stent patency times were 92 days (95% confidence interval [CI], 61–123 days) and 83 days (95% CI, 46–120 days), respectively. Ten (23.8%) of the 42 patients presented with stent occlusion due to food impaction with biliary sludge, and required repeat intervention. Stent occlusion was more frequent in metastatic gastric cancer patients with pervious gastrectomy, but did not reach statistical significance (p = 0.069). CONCLUSION: Percutaneous placement of a double-stent system with long duodenal extension is feasible and safe. However, this stent system does not completely prevent stent occlusion caused by food reflux.

The General Rules for the Study of Primary Liver Cancer

The General Rules for the Study of Primary Liver Cancer was published in June 2001 as the first edition. Since then, the 5th edition of the General Rules for the Study of Primary Liver Cancer was published by the 17th Committee of the Korean Liver Cancer Association based on the most recent data. The 5th edition of the General Rules for the Study of Primary Liver Cancer ranged over numerous topics such as anatomy, medical assessment of the patients, staging of hepatocellular carcinoma, description of the image findings, summary of hepatic resection, description of the surgical specimens, liver transplantation, reporting the pathological findings, pathological examinations of liver specimen, non-surgical treatment, radiotherapy, and assessment of tumor response after non-surgical treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. The 5th General Rules for the Study of Primary Liver Cancer will not only become the basis of academic development for liver cancer studies in Korea, but also serve as the primary form of national liver cancer data accumulation based on standardized rules.

Efficacy of Prophylactic Uterine Artery Embolization before Obstetrical Procedures with High Risk for Massive Bleeding

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the safety and efficacy of prophylactic uterine artery embolization (UAE) before obstetrical procedures with high risk for massive bleeding. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A retrospective review of 29 female patients who underwent prophylactic UAE from June 2009 to February 2014 was performed. Indications for prophylactic UAE were as follows: dilatation and curettage (D&C) associated with ectopic pregnancy (cesarean scar pregnancy, n = 9; cervical pregnancy, n = 6), termination of pregnancy with abnormal placentation (placenta previa, n = 8), D&C for retained placenta with vascularity (n = 5), and D&C for suspected gestational trophoblastic disease (n = 1). Their medical records were reviewed to evaluate the safety and efficacy of UAE. RESULTS: All women received successful bilateral prophylactic UAE followed by D&C with preservation of the uterus. In all patients, UAE followed by obstetrical procedure prevented significant vaginal bleeding on gynecologic examination. There was no major complication related to UAE. Vaginal spotting continued for 3 months in three cases. Although oligomenorrhea continued for six months in one patient, normal menstruation resumed in all patients afterwards. During follow-up, four had subsequent successful natural pregnancies. Spontaneous abortion occurred in one of them during the first trimester. CONCLUSION: Prophylactic UAE before an obstetrical procedure in patients with high risk of bleeding or symptomatic bleeding may be a safe and effective way to manage or prevent serious bleeding, especially for women who wish to preserve their fertility.

Percutaneous radiologic gastrostomy in patients with failed percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy

BACKGROUND: To determine the technical feasibility and success rate of percutaneous radiologic gastrostomy (PRG) after failure of percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG). METHODS: Consecutive patients referred for PRG after failure of PEG between May 2011 and June 2016 were included in this study. The reasons for the failure of PEG, as well as the technical success and complications of PRG were noted. RESULTS: Fifteen patients (14 men, 1 woman; age, 27-93 years) were included. The most common reasons for PEG failure were esophageal stricture due to malignancies (n = 8), unfavorable abdominal wall conditions (n = 3), unstable patient condition during endoscopy (n = 2), and other miscellaneous conditions (n = 2). PRG placement was technically successful in all 15 cases. In one case, early slip-out of the gastrostomy tube occurred, which required removal and repositioning. No mortality was noted. CONCLUSION: PRG is technically feasible in patients with failed PEG insertion, and has advantages over PEG and a high overall success rate.

Percutaneous Unilateral Biliary Metallic Stent Placement in Patients with Malignant Obstruction of the Biliary Hila and Contralateral Portal Vein Steno-Occlusion

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the outcomes of percutaneous unilateral metallic stent placement in patients with a malignant obstruction of the biliary hila and a contralateral portal vein steno-occlusion. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Sixty patients with a malignant hilar obstruction and unilobar portal vein steno-occlusion caused by tumor invasion or preoperative portal vein embolization were enrolled in this retrospective study from October 2010 to October 2013. All patients were treated with percutaneous placement of a biliary metallic stent, including expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE)-covered stents in 27 patients and uncovered stents in 33 patients. RESULTS: A total of 70 stents were successfully placed in 60 patients. Procedural-related minor complications, including self-limiting hemobilia (n = 2) and cholangitis (n = 4) occurred in six (10%) patients. Acute cholecystitis occurred in two patients. Successful internal drainage was achieved in 54 (90%) of the 60 patients. According to a Kaplan-Meier analysis, median survival time was 210 days (95% confidence interval [CI], 135-284 days), and median stent patency time was 133 days (95% CI, 94-171 days). No significant difference in stent patency was observed between covered and uncovered stents (p = 0.646). Stent dysfunction occurred in 16 (29.6%) of 54 patients after a mean of 159 days (range, 65-321 days). CONCLUSION: Unilateral placement of ePTFE-covered and uncovered stents in the hepatic lobe with a patent portal vein is a safe and effective method for palliative treatment of patients with a contralateral portal vein steno-occlusion caused by an advanced hilar malignancy or portal vein embolization. No significant difference in stent patency was detected between covered and uncovered metallic stents.

Percutaneous Radiologic Gastrostomy Using the One-Anchor Technique in Patients after Partial Gastrectomy

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of our study was to assess the feasibility of performing percutaneous radiologic gastrostomy (PRG) in patients who had undergone partial gastrectomy and to evaluate factors associated with technical success. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Nineteen patients after partial gastrectomy, who were referred for PRG between April 2006 and April 2012, were retrospectively analyzed. The remnant stomach was punctured using a 21-gauge Chiba-needle. A single anchor was used for the gastropexy and a 12-Fr or 14-Fr gastrostomy tube was inserted. Data were collected regarding the technical success, procedure time, and presence of any complications. Univariable analyses were performed to determine the factors related to the technical success. RESULTS: Percutaneous radiologic gastrostomy was technically successful in 10 patients (53%), while a failed attempt and failure without an attempt were observed in 5 (26%) and 4 (21%) patients, respectively. Percutaneous radiologic jejunostomy was successfully performed in 9 patients who experienced technical failure. In the 10 successful PRG cases, the mean procedure time was 6.35 minutes. Major complications occurred in 2 patients, tube passage through the liver and pneumoperitonum in one and severe hemorrhage in the other. The technical success rate was higher in patients with Billroth I gastrectomy (100%, 6/6) than in patients with Billroth II gastrectomy (31%, 4/13) (p = 0.011). CONCLUSION: Percutaneous radiologic gastrostomy can be successfully performed using the one-anchor technique in approximately half of the patients after partial gastrectomy.

Covered Stent Placement for the Treatment of Malignant Superior Vena Cava Syndrome: Is Unilateral Covered Stenting Safe and Effective?

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the safety and efficacy of unilateral covered stent placement in patients with malignant superior vena cava (SVC) syndrome. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Between October 2008 and November 2012, expanded polytetrafluoroethylene-covered stent placement for malignant SVC syndrome was performed in 40 consecutive patients (35 men and five women; mean age, 61.4 years; range, 35-81 years). All covered stents were unilaterally placed within the SVC or across the venous confluence when needed to relieve venous obstruction and prevent tumor overgrowth, regardless of patency of contralateral brachiocephalic veins. RESULTS: Stent placement was technically successful in all patients. There were no major complications. Of the 37 patients symptomatic prior to stent placement, 34 (92%) experienced complete symptomatic relief 1-8 days after stent placement. Of the 29 patients who underwent covered stent placement across the venous confluence, nine patients had patent contralateral brachiocephalic veins prior to stent placement. However, no sign of SVC obstruction or contralateral upper extremity venous thrombosis was observed during the follow-up period. Kaplan-Meier analysis revealed median patient survival of 163 days. Stent occlusion occurred in four (10%) of 40 patents. Cumulative stent patency rates at 1, 3, 6, and 12 months were 95%, 92%, 86%, and 86%, respectively. CONCLUSION: Unilateral covered stent placement appears to be a safe and effective method for treating malignant SVC syndrome, despite the location of SVC occlusion.

Lymphangiography to Treat Postoperative Lymphatic Leakage: A Technical Review

In addition to imaging the lymphatics and detecting various types of lymphatic leakage, lymphangiography is a therapeutic option for patients with chylothorax, chylous ascites, and lymphatic fistula. Percutaneous thoracic duct embolization, transabdominal catheterization of the cisterna chyli or thoracic duct, and subsequent embolization of the thoracic duct is an alternative to surgical ligation of the thoracic duct. In this pictorial review, we present the detailed technique, clinical applications, and complications of lymphangiography and thoracic duct embolization.

Safety and Efficacy of Transarterial Nephrectomy as an Alternative to Surgical Nephrectomy

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the safety and efficacy of transarterial nephrectomy, i.e., complete renal artery embolization, as an alternative to surgical nephrectomy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This retrospective study included 11 patients who underwent transarterial nephrectomy due to a high risk of surgical nephrectomy or their refusal to undergo surgery during the period from April 2002 to February 2013. Medical records and radiographic images were reviewed retrospectively to collect information regarding underlying etiologies, clinical presentations and embolization outcomes. RESULTS: The underlying etiologies for transarterial nephrectomy included recurrent hematuria (chronic transplant rejection [n = 3], arteriovenous malformation or fistula [n = 3], angiomyolipoma [n = 1], or end-stage renal disease [n = 1]), inoperable renal or ureteral injury (n = 2), and ectopic kidney with urinary incontinence (n = 1). The technical success rate was 100%, while clinical success was achieved in eight patients (72.7%). Subsequent surgical nephrectomy was required for three patients due to an incomplete nephrectomy effect (n = 2) or necrotic pyelonephritis (n = 1). Procedure-related complications were post-infarction syndrome in one patient and necrotic pyelonephritis in another patient. Of four patients with follow-up CT, four showed renal atrophy and two showed partial renal enhancement. No patient developed a procedure-related hypertension. CONCLUSION: Transarterial nephrectomy may be a safe and effective alternative to surgical nephrectomy in patients with high operative risks.

Transcatheter Arterial Chemoembolization for Infiltrative Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Clinical Safety and Efficacy and Factors Influencing Patient Survival

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the safety and efficacy of transcatheter arterial chemoembolization (TACE) in patients with infiltrative hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and to identify the prognostic factors associated with patient survival. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Fifty two patients who underwent TACE for infiltrative HCC were evaluated between 2007 and 2010. The maximum diameter of the tumors ranged from 7 cm to 22 cm (median 15 cm). Of 46 infiltrative HCC patients with portal vein tumor thrombosis, 32 patients received adjuvant radiation therapy for portal vein tumor thrombosis after TACE. RESULTS: The tumor response by European Association for the Study of the Liver criteria was partial in 18%, stable in 47%, and progressive in 35% of the patients. The median survival time was 5.7 months (Kaplan-Meier analysis). The survival rates were 48% at six months, 25% at one year, and 12% at two years. In the multivariable Cox regression analysis, Child-Pugh class (p = 0.02), adjuvant radiotherapy (p = 0.003) and tumor response after TACE (p = 0.004) were significant factors associated with patient survival. Major complications occurred in nine patients. The major complication rate was significantly higher in patients with Child-Pugh B than in patients with Child-Pugh A (p = 0.049, chi2 test). CONCLUSION: Transcatheter arterial chemoembolization can be a safe treatment option in infiltrative HCC patients with Child Pugh class A. Child Pugh class A, radiotherapy for portal vein tumor thrombosis after TACE and tumor response are good prognostic factors for an increased survival after TACE in patients with infiltrative HCCs.

An Evaluation of the Fluoroscopy-guided Percutaneous Gastrostomy with the Pull Technique

PURPOSE: To evaluate the safety and usefulness of the fluoroscopy-guided percutaneous gastrostomy (FPG) using a large profile gastrostomy tube accompanied with the pull technique, and without the use of an endoscopy or a gastropexy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: From March 2005 to February 2007, 25 patients underwent an FPG using a large profile gastrostomy tube accompanied by the pull technique, in which a 24F pull-type tube was inserted into a patient's mouth and was pulled to the upper abdominal puncture site using a snare, under fluoroscopy. The 18 patients with difficulty swallowing due to muscular atrophic lateral sclerosis or transitional myodystrophy included 5 cases of quadriplegia, 1 case of Parkinson's disease, and 1 metastatic mediastinal tumor. The technical success rate, occurrence of complications, and clinical outcomes were examined. RESULTS: The technical success rate was found to be 100%. In addition, the retention periods for the indwelling tube ranged from 1 to 24 months (mean: 6.5 months), with all tubes retained at a normal position with normal function. No procedure-related mortality occurred. One patient (4%) did however develop a complication in the form of ascites and ascitic fluid leakage around the tube, which was of hepatic origin and was ultimately resolved after the drainage of ascites. CONCLUSION: As a result of this study the FPG, accompanied with the pull technique using a 24F tube, should be considered as a safe and effective method for examining patients. It was found to have a high success rate and a low complication rate.

Tumor Response to Transcatheter Arterial Chemoembolization in Recurrent Hepatocellular Carcinoma after Living Donor Liver Transplantation

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the tumor response and patient survival rate following transcatheter arterial chemoembolization (TACE) in recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma (r-HCC) after living donor liver transplantation (LDLT). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twenty-eight patients with r-HCC underwent one or more cycles of TACE after LDLT (mean, 2.5 cycles). After a mixture of iodized oil and anti-cancer drugs was injected via the arteries feeding the tumors, these vessels were embolized with a gelatin sponge. Tumor response was determined by follow-up CT imaging on all patients four weeks after each TACE procedure. Patient survival was calculated using the Kaplan-Meier survival curve. RESULTS: After TACE, targeted tumor reduced in size by 25% or more in 19 of the 28 study patients (67.9%). However, intrahepatic recurrence or extrahepatic metastasis occurred in 21 of the 28 patients (75.0%) during the 3-month follow-up period and in 26 of the 28 patients (92.9%) during the 6-month period following TACE. Extrahepatic metastasis was noted in 18 of the 28 patients (64.3%). The 1-, 3- and 5-year survival rates following TACE were 47.9, 6.0 and 0%, respectively, with a mean survival of nine months in all patients. There were no significant complications related to TACE. CONCLUSION: TACE produces an effective tumor response for targeted r-HCC after LDLT. However, the survival rate of patients with r-HCC after LDLT is poor due to extrahepatic metastasis and intrahepatic recurrence.

Bronchial Artery Embolization for Massive Hemoptysis in a Patient with Behcet's Disease / 대한류마티스학회지

Behcet's disease is an important cause of fatal vasculitis in young adult males and vascular involvement has been reported in more than 25% of patients. Pulmonary vascular involvement has been found in 1~7.7% of patients and is known to be related to poor prognosis. A incidence of fatal hemoptysis is high in patients whose Behcet`s disease is complicated by pulmonary artery aneurysm (PAA). The recurrence of hemoptysis in PAA of Behcet's disease may result from inadequate medical therapy and complications of surgical treatment. We report a case with Behcet's disease whose fatal hemoptysis has been successfully treated with bronchial artery embolization.

Endovascular Treatment of Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm by Bifurcated Stent Graft

PURPOSE: To evaluate the effectiveness and safety of endoluminal bifurcated stent graft for the treatment of AAA. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Between August 1997 and August 1998, 20 patients with AAA underwent treatment involving the use of a bifurcated stent graft. Fourteen in whom the aneurysm involved only bifurcation and six patients in whom the common iliac arteries were involved. For one patient, a stent with a short proximal neck measuring 12 mm was used. The stent graft was inserted by means of a unilateral surgical femoral arteriotomy. After the procedure, follow up involving CT and aortography was performed between month 3 and month 12. RESULTS: The primary success rate with the first trial was 79 percent (15 of 19 patients), and the overall success rate was 84 percent; one perigraft leak was successfully corrected. In one case, technical failure occurred due to a tortuous iliac vessel and spasm. Procedure-related complications occurred in 16% of patients (3 of 19), one of whom died due to acute renal failure following a contrast overdose. CONCLUSION: Endovascular treatment of infrarenal AAA by means of a bifurcated stent graft was effective and safe. In particular, if the proximal neck measured more than 1cm, any AAA could be treated using bifurcated stent graft. Further investigation of the outcome and complications arising during long-term follow-up are needed, however.

Distribution of Coronary Calcium Score in Healthy Middle-aged Korean

PURPOSE: To determine the prevalence and degree of CAC (coronary artery calcification) in appearently healthy middle-aged Koreans, and the relation of CAC to risk factors for atherosclerosis. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 289 apparently healthy personnel at Yonsei University (male: 170, female: 119, age: mean(SD=54.9 +/-7.1 years) underwent EBT (electron bean tomography). The risk factors for atherosclerosis, which included diabetes mellitus, hypertension, smoking, a family history of precocious onset, obesity, hyperlipidemia, and high intraperitoneal fat, were scrutinized. One hundred and sixty-eight subjects (58 % ) had at least one risk factor. The CAC score was calculated for all subjects and for each coronary artery separately and was then analyzed by age and sex and in relation to the risk factors. RESULTS: The prevalence of CAC was 40% in men and 18.5% in women (mean score: 29.7 vs. 9.9). The number of individuals who had one, two, or more than two risk factors was 141, 41, and 19, respectively. The number of risk factors and the prevalence and score of CAC were significantly correlated (p=0.01, 0.02 respectively). The number of individuals with no risk factor, with without CAC, was 58(20.1%) and 103(35.6% ) , respectively, while the number with some risk factor, with or without CAC, was 38(13.1%) and 90(31.1%), respectively. The CAC score was significantly higher in the presence of hypertension, low HDL, or obesity (p=0.001, 0.049, and 0.068, respectively). Smoking appeared to have a borderline effect on the calcium score (p=0.118). CONCLUSION: This study should provide useful information for interpreting CAC scores and establishing a treatment strategy for Koreans. The comparison of our results with other studies will enable a better understanding of the process and risk factors of atherosclerosis in Koreans.