Factores predictores de la violencia relacional en la adolescencia / Predictive factors of relational violence in adolescence

El objetivo del presente trabajo fue examinar la violencia relacional entre iguales desde una perspectiva psicosocial, analizando variables familiares (funcionamiento y comunicación familiar), sociales (reputación social - percibida e ideal - y actitud hacia la autoridad institucional) e individuales (malestar psicológico e ideación suicida) en adolescentes escolarizados. La muestra fue de 8115 adolescentes, con edades comprendidas entre los 11 y los 16 años, del estado de Nuevo León, México. Se realizó un análisis de regresión lineal múltiple, paso a paso, cuyos resultados mostraron que la dimensión más importante en la predicción de la conducta violenta relacional es la autopercepción no conformista, seguido del malestar psicológico. Finalmente, se discuten estos resultados y sus implicaciones.

The aim of this research was to study relational violence between peers from a psychosocial perspective, by analyzing family variables (family functioning and communication), social variables (social reputation ­both perceived and ideal­ and attitude towards institutional authority), and individual variables (psychological distress and suicide ideation) in adolescent students. The sample consisted of 8,115 adolescents aged 11 to 16 years from the State of Nuevo León, Mexico. We performed a forward stepwise multiple regression analysis, the results of which showed that the most important factor in the prediction of violent relational behavior at school is the nonconformist self-perception, followed by psychological distress. Finally, these results and their implications are discussed.

Miedo al Delito, Victimización y Satisfacción con la Vida en México / Fear of Crime, Victimization, and Satisfaction with Live in Mexico

El objetivo del presente estudio es examinar las relaciones existentes entre miedo al delito, victimización y satisfacción con la vida, en función del género. La muestra estuvo conformada por 7535 sujetos de ambos sexos (49.8 % mujeres y 50.2 % hombres) de entre 12 y 70 años, seleccionados a partir de un muestro estratificado proporcional. El instrumento de medida fue una adaptación de la Encuesta Nacional de Victimización y Seguridad Pública de México. A partir de un MANOVA factorial multivariante se observó que el miedo al delito, la victimización y las medidas de protección frente a la delincuencia se relacionaban con una pobre satisfacción con la vida. También se observó, respecto del sexo, que los hombres tenían mayor miedo al delito y realizaban más restricciones en su vida cotidiana. Finalmente, se discuten los resultados y sus implicaciones prácticas.

The aim of this study is to examine how fear of crime, victimization, and satisfaction with life are related and also differ according to gender. 7535 participants of both sexes (49.8% women and 50.2% men) aged from 12 to 70 years old were selected from a proportional stratified sample. The instrument applied was an adaptation of the National Survey of Victimization and Public Security of Mexico. A multivariate factorial MANOVA was carried out. Fear of crime, victimization, and measures of protection against delinquency appear as related to poor satisfaction with life. Regarding to gender, higher scores of men on fear of crime and on restrictions in their daily lives were observed. Finally, the results and their practical implications are discussed.

Victimization, perception of insecurity, and changes in daily routines in Mexico / Victimización, percepción de inseguridad y cambios en las rutinas cotidianas en México

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE To analyze the relationships between victimization, perception of insecurity, and changes in routines. METHODS The 8,170 subjects of both sexes (49.9% women and 50.1% men) aged between 12 and 60 years, selected from a proportional stratified sampling, participated in this study. The measuring instrument was an adaptation of the National Survey on Victimization and Perception of Public Security. Chi-square tests were performed. RESULTS The results show significant differences on victimization and sex regarding perception of insecurity, restrictions on everyday activities, and protection measures. 13.1% of those interviewed claimed to have been victims of a crime in the past 12 months. 52.7% of women considered their municipality as unsafe or very unsafe. In the case of men, this percentage was 58.2%. Female victims reported significant restrictions in everyday activities when compared to non-victims. In relation to men, the percentage of victims with a high restriction of activities was higher in male victims than non-victims. In the group of victimized women, the segment of women who opted for increased measures of protection against crime was larger than expected, while those of non-victims who took less protective measures was lower than expected. These same results were observed in the group of men. CONCLUSIONS The experience of victimization implies a greater perception of insecurity. However, the climate of insecurity is widespread in a large number of citizens. Gender differences in a high-crime environment show the importance of investigating in depth the roles of both genders in the perception of insecurity and changes in routines.

RESUMO OBJETIVO Analizar las relaciones existentes entre victimización, percepción de inseguridad y cambios en las rutinas. MÉTODOS Participaron en este estudio 8,170 sujetos de ambos sexos (49.9% mujeres y 50.1% hombres) de entre 12 y 60 años, seleccionados a partir de un muestro estratificado proporcional. El instrumento de medida fue una adaptación de la Encuesta Nacional de Victimización y Seguridad Pública. Se realizaron pruebas Chi-cuadrado. RESULTADOS Los resultados evidencian diferencias significativas en cuanto a victimización y sexo con respecto a percepción de inseguridad, restricciones de actividades cotidianas y medidas de protección. Un 13.1% de las personas entrevistadas afirmaron haber sido víctimas de un delito en los últimos doce meses. El 52.7% de las mujeres consideraron su municipio como inseguro o muy inseguro. En el caso de los hombres, este porcentaje fue de 58.2%. Las mujeres víctimas señalaron restricciones en la vida cotidiana significativas en comparación con las no víctimas. Con relación a los hombres, el porcentaje de víctimas con un alta restricción de actividades fue mayor en los hombres víctimas que en los hombres no víctimas. En el grupo de mujeres victimizadas, el segmento de mujeres que optaron por mayores medidas de protección frente a la delincuencia fue mayor de lo esperado, mientras que las mujeres no víctimas que asumieron menores medidas de protección fue menor de lo esperado. Estos mismos resultados se observaron en el grupo de los hombres. CONCLUSIONES La experiencia de victimización lleva implícita una mayor percepción de inseguridad. Sin embargo, el clima de inseguridad se encuentra diseminado en gran cantidad de la ciudadanos. Las diferencias de género en un clima de alta criminalidad muestran la importancia de investigar a profundidad los roles de ambos sexos en la percepción de inseguridad y los cambios en las rutinas.

Validación de la escala de victimización entre adolescentes a través del teléfono móvil y de internet / Validation of the adolescent victimization through mobile phone and internet scale

OBJETIVO: Validar la Escala de Victimización entre Adolescentes a través del Teléfono Móvil y de Internet (CYBVIC), analizando sus propiedades psicométricas. MÉTODOS: Se realizó un estudio transversal descriptivo en el que participaron dos muestras independientes de adolescentes de ambos sexos, de entre 11 y 19 años. La primera muestra estuvo constituida por 1 934 adolescentes españoles, y la segunda por 1 483 adolescentes mexicanos. Se realizó un análisis factorial exploratorio de la escala con la primera muestra, y un análisis factorial confirmatorio con la segunda. También se llevaron a cabo análisis multigrupo, análisis de fiabilidad y análisis de las correlaciones de las dimensiones de la escala con diversas variables externas de ajuste psicológico (sintomatología depresiva, estrés percibido, soledad, satisfacción con la vida y victimización tradicional). RESULTADOS: Se encontraron dos factores, denominados cybmóvil y cybinternet, que en conjunto explicaron 52% de la varianza. Estos factores fueron congruentes con la propuesta teórica original. El análisis factorial confirmatorio mostró un ajuste adecuado del modelo de dos factores correlacionados. Los datos indicaron la invarianza factorial del cuestionario entre las muestras de España y México. El análisis de fiabilidad confirmó que la escala posee una consistencia interna adecuada. Se encontraron correlaciones significativas entre las dimensiones cybmóvil y cybinternet con las variables externas con las que se relacionaron. Conclusiones. La escala CYBVIC tiene propiedades psicométricas adecuadas y puede ser utilizada como una medida válida y fiable en nuevas investigaciones, que contribuyan a ampliar el conocimiento sobre este problema mundial creciente de cyberbullying entre adolescentes.

OBJECTIVE: To validate the adolescent victimization through mobile phone and internet scale (CYBVIC) through analysis of its psychometric properties. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted in which two independent samples of adolescents aged 11-19, both male and female, participated. The first sample was comprised of 1 934 Spanish adolescents, and the second sample, 1 483 Mexican adolescents. An exploratory factor analysis of the scale was done with the first sample and a confirmatory factor analysis with the second. Multigroup and reliability analyses, as well as an analysis of the correlation of the scale's dimensions with various external variables related to psychological adjustment (depressive symptomatology, perceived stress, loneliness, satisfaction with life, and traditional victimization), were also conducted. Results. Two factors, called cybmóvil [cyber mobile] and cybinternet [cyber internet], were found, which together explained 52% of the variance. These factors were consistent with the original hypothesis. The confirmatory factor analysis showed the model's adequate fit to two correlated factors. The data indicated the factorial invariance of the questionnaire between the Spanish and Mexican samples. The reliability analysis confirmed that the scale has sufficient internal consistency. Significant correlations were found between the cybmóvil/cybinternet factors and the external variables with which they were related. CONCLUSIONS: The CYBVIC scale has adequate psychometric properties and can be used as a valid and reliable measure in new research, which could expand knowledge about the growing international problem of cyberbullying among adolescents.

Comunicación familiar y comportamientos delictivos en adolescentes españoles: el doble rol mediador de la autoestima / Family communication and delinquent behavior among spanish adolescents: the mediating role of self-esteem

This research analyses the relationship among family communication (open communication versus communication problems), multidimensional self-esteem (family, academic, social and physical self-esteem) and behavioural problems in adolescence. Two independent samples were used in the study: Sample 1 was composed of 414 adolescents ranging in age from 12 to 17 years old, and Sample 2 was composed of 625 adolescents aged from 11 to 20 years old. Results showed an indirect effect of family communication on delinquent behavior through the mediation of self-esteem. We found a protection effect of family and academic self-esteem and a risk effect of social and physical self-esteem on delinquent behavior.

El presente estudio analiza las relaciones entre la comunicación familiar (comunicación abierta o problemática), la autoestima considerada desde una perspectiva multidimensional (autoestima familiar, escolar, social y física) y los comportamientos delictivos en adolescentes. Se utilizan dos muestras independientes: la primera está constituida por 414 chicas y chicos de 12 a 17 años y la segunda por 625 chicas y chicos de 11 a 20 años. Se observa, en las dos muestras, una influencia indirecta de la comunicación familiar en el comportamiento delictivo a través de una mediación de la autoestima. Además, se observa, tanto un efecto protector de las autoestimas familiar y escolar frente a la implicación en comportamientos delictivos, como un efecto de riesgo de las autoestimas social y física.

Funcionamiento familiar, autoestima y consumo de sustancias en adolescentes: un modelo de mediación / Family functioning, self-esteem and substance use in adolescents: a mediational model

OBJETIVO: Analizar las relaciones directas e indirectas entre el funcionamiento familiar, la autoestima considerada desde una perspectiva multidimensional (autoestima familiar, escolar, social y física) y el consumo de sustancias. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Los datos se recogieron durante el año escolar 2003-2004 y corresponden a dos muestras independientes de adolescentes españoles (n1= 414, Castilla y León; n2= 625, Comunidad Valenciana). Para el análisis de datos se utilizó la técnica estadística de ecuaciones estructurales y se siguió el procedimiento de análisis de efectos mediadores de Holmbeck (1997). RESULTADOS: La autoestima media significativamente la influencia del funcionamiento familiar en el consumo de sustancias de los adolescentes. Además, se observa, por un lado, un efecto protector de las autoestimas familiar y escolar frente a la implicación en el consumo de sustancias y, por otro, un efecto de riesgo de las autoestimas social y física. CONCLUSIONES: Parece necesario adoptar una perspectiva multidimensional en el estudio de la autoestima de adolescentes consumidores y prevenir la sobrevaloración en las dimensiones social y física.

OBJECTIVE: This research analyzes the direct and indirect relationships among family functioning, multidimensional self-esteem (family, academic, social, and physical self-esteem) and substance use. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study participants were composed of two independent samples of Spanish adolescents who provided information during the 2003-2004 academic year (n1= 414, Castilla & León; n2= 625, Comunidad Valenciana). The statistical analyses were carried out using structural equation modelling and the procedure of mediation effects analysis (Holmbeck, 1997). RESULTS: Results showed a significant mediational effect of self-esteem on the relation between family functioning and adolescent substance use. Moreover, results showed, on the one hand, a protection effect of family and academic self-esteem in the face of substance use and, on the other hand, a risk effect of social and physical self-esteem. CONCLUSIONS: It is necessary to adopt a multidimensional perspective when analyzing the self-esteem of adolescents with substance use and to prevent the over-valuation of social and physical dimensions.

Rechazo parental y ajuste psicológico y social de los hijos

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Abstract: Intercultural research indicates that two dimensions of parental behavior can be identified in human societies: acceptance and rejection. According to Rohner, parental behavior can be defined as a continuum. In one end of the continuum we could find parents that manifest love and affection towards their children, both verbally and physically. In the other, we could find parents with aversive feelings towards their children, who use severe and abusive practices. Parental rejection is, according to Rhoner, the absence or the significant withdrawal of warmth, affection or love from parents toward their children. Rohner's framework proposes three dimensions of parental rejection: a) hostility and aggression; b) indifference and negligence and, c) indifferenciated rejection. A long research tradition has demonstrated that parental styles characterized by anger, aggressiveness, and rejection, are related with children's mental health problems. Normally, this field of research has analyzed the relationship between parents and children without differentiating the father from the mother. However, recent research suggests that fathers and mothers, behaviors can have differential effects on the psychological adjustment of their children. Also, research on parents-children relationships, has traditionally used perceptions or observations of either parents or children. The definition of a parent as hostile or as rejecting or affectionate and warm can not be made only by observing parents' behavior, since acceptance and rejection are not fixed qualities of behavior. From this point of view the effects of parental behavior on their children depends not only from objective elements but also from children's perceptual and inferential processes. Parents and children do not necessarily perceive in the same fashion parental acceptance, demands or punishments. These caveats underlie the importance of analyzing parental behavior both from parents' and children's perspectives. On behalf of these ideas, the aim of this paper is to analyze the relationships between parental and maternal rejection and the psychological and social adjustment of their children. In order to do so, this study will use both children and parents perceptions. That is, this study will observe the children's perceptions of their mothers and fathers behaviors towards them, as well as the perception of their own psychological adjustment. Also, this study will examine parents perceptions of their parental practices as well as parents perceptions of their childrens' psychological and social adjustment. Participants in this study are a total of 444 families distributed into two groups (risk and comparison groups). The first group (risk group) consists of 100 families in which parent-child relationships were considered as disfunctional or not adecuate. The second group of families (comparison group) consists of 344 families in which parent-child realtionships were considered as adecuate. The group of families considered at risk were identified by school teachers in public schools (Valencian Community, Spain). Children ranged in age from 7 to 13 years. Of the children 54% were male and 46% female. All the children were atttending school at the time of the research. Teachers had also to contact parents to obtain their agreement to collaborate in the study. Of the parents' questionnaires, 77% were completed by mothers and 23% by fathers. Measures were the following: Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire (PARQ). This self-report questionnaire (Rohner et al.) measures perceptions of parental treatment of the child in terms of four dimensions, a) parental warmth and affection, b) parental hostility and aggression, c) parental indiference and neglect, and c) parental undifferentiated rejection. The two forms used in this study allowed us to obtain three measures of parental acceptance-rejection: parents perceptions of their treatment of their children, and children's perceptions of the way they are treated by both their mothers and fathers. Personality Assesment Questionnaire (PAQ). This self-report questionnaire (Rohner et al.) asseses the way in which children perceive their own personality and behavioral dispositions. The following scales constitute the child PAQ: a) hostility/aggression, b) dependence, c) negative self-esteem, d) negative self-adequacy, e) emotional irresponsiveness, f) emotional uncertainty, and g) negative world view. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). This cheklist (Achenbach & Edelbrock) evaluates the behavior problems and social competencies of children as reported by their parents. The behavior problems measure used in this study is composed of two broad dimensions: internalizing and externalizing. Internalizing includes anxious, obsessive, somatic complaints, schizoid behavior, depressed withdrawal, being immature, and being uncommuni-cative. Externalizing includes being delinquent, aggressive, cruel, or hyperactive. Results show that rejected children are psychologically and socially different from those children who have adequate relationships with their parents (characterized by parental acceptance). Rejected children, when compared to children in the comparison group, manifested significantly more problems. The personality of these children was characterized by dependency, low self-esteem and self-adjustment, emotional instability, and a negative world view. Because an alternative explanation is that those children with psychological and social problems could bias their perception of their parents behavior as rejecting, this study included also an analysis of parents perceptions of their treatment of their children, as well as their perceptions of their children behavior. By including both perceptions (parents and children) in the study design, the parent-child interaction can be better defined (in terms of acceptance and rejection), and possible biases in the definition of parental behavior can be avoided. These analyses showed that parents from the risk group, when compared to the comparison group, perceive their children as having more behavior problems expressed both in an externalizing fashion (i.e., being aggressive, hyperactive, disobedient, overactive, and destructive), and in an internalizing fashion (i.e., being anxious, uncommunicative, immature, submissive, and withdrawn). The results obtained in this study show clearly that rejected children are "different", in both psychological and social dimensions, from other childrens whose parent-child relationships are characterized by parental acceptance. These findings would be consistent with Rohner's parental acceptance-rejection theory according to which these characteristics are manifested by children who experience rejection. Children in the risk group perceive less warmth and affection (expressed psysically or verbally), and more rejection (manifested by hostility and agression, indifference and neglect, and undiferentiated rejection) in the way they were treated by their parents. Also it is interesting to note that these results hold, independently from who is reportimg parental behavior (parents or children). This study has shown that childrens perceived rejection, either from the mother or the father has a negative outcome for their psychological and social adjustment.