ABSTRACT
Background: In India, household air pollution (HAP) is one of the leading risk factors contributing to the national burden of disease. Estimates indicate that 7.6% of all deaths in children aged under 5 years in the country can be attributed to HAP. This analysis attempts to establish the association between HAP and neonatal mortality rate (NMR). Methods: Secondary data from the Annual Health Survey, conducted in 284 districts of nine large states covering 1 404 337 live births, were analysed. The survey was carried out from July 2010 to March 2011 (reference period: January 2007 to December 2009). The primary outcome was NMR. The key exposure was the use of firewood/crop residues/cow dung as fuel. The covariates were: sociodemographic factors (place of residence, literacy status of mothers, proportion of women aged less than 18 years who were married, wealth index); health-system factors (three or more antenatal care visits made during pregnancy; institutional deliveries; proportion of neonates with a stay in the institution for less than 24 h; percentage of neonates who received a check-up within 24 h of birth); and behavioural factors (initiation of breast feeding within 1 h). Descriptive analysis, with district as the unit of analysis, was performed for rural and urban areas. Bivariate and multivariable linear regression analysis was carried out to investigate the association between HAP and NMR. Results: The mean rural NMR was 42.4/1000 live births (standard deviation [SD] = 11.4/1000) and urban NMR was 33.1/1000 live births (SD=12.6/1000). The proportion of households with HAP was 92.2% in rural areas, compared to 40.8% in urban areas, and the difference was statistically significant (P < 0.001). HAP was found to be strongly associated with NMR after adjustment (β = 0.22; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.09 to 0.35) for urban and rural areas combined. For rural areas separately, the association was significant (β = 0.30; 95% CI = 0.13 to 0.45) after adjustment. In univariable analysis, the analysis showed a significant association in urban areas (β = 0.23; 95% CI = 0.12 to 2.34) but failed to demonstrate an association in multivariable analysis (β = 0.001; 95% CI = –0.15 to 0.15). Conclusion: Secondary data from district level indicate that HAP is associated with NMR in rural areas, but not in urban areas in India.
ABSTRACT
Defining the human resource needs for providing quality maternal, newborn, and child health services across such a large and diverse population country like India is truly challenging. The effective response to significant challenges and increased requirements of evidence-based effectiveness of the public health projects on maternal and child health is putting pressure on existing program managers to acquire new advanced academic training and information. The data regarding the existing courses on reproductive and child health and related fields in the country were obtained by a predefined search made on the Internet through the Google search engine in December 2011. The collected data were the name and location of the institution offering the respective course, theme, course duration, course structure, eligibility criteria, and mode of learning. In India, around 15 institutes are offering certificate/postgraduate diploma courses on maternal and child health either as a regular program or through distance education program. The admission procedure for each institute is independent of others. The courses vary in terms of duration, eligibility criteria, and fee structure. Conceptualizing an educational initiative in response to national demands for increased workforce capacity to eliminate key medical and nonmedical educational barriers and financial and nonfinancial barriers to advanced academic preparation would enhance the quality of services available in the region.
ABSTRACT
Context: Facility based newborn care is gaining importance as an intervention aiming at reduction of neonatal mortality. Objective: To assess different factors that affect effectiveness of facility based newborn care on neonatal outcomes. Evidence acquisition: Electronic search using key search engines along with search of grey literature manually. Observational and interventional studies published between 1966- Aug 2010 in English having a change in neonatal mortality as an outcome measure were considered. Results: A total of 40 articles were fully reviewed for generating synthesized evidence. All were observational studies. The exposure variables that affected neonatal outcomes were grouped into three categories- regionalization of perinatal care (17 articles), strengthening of lower level neonatal facilities (12), and other miscellaneous factors (11). Regionalization played a key role in advancing newborn care practices. It increased in-utero transfer of high risk newborns and improved survival outcomes especially for very low birth weight neonates at level III facilities. It led to reduction in neonatal mortality owing primarily to enhanced survival of low birth weight infants. Strengthening of lower level units contributed significantly in reducing neonatal mortality. High patient volume (>2,000 deliveries/ year), inborn status, availability of referral system and inter-facility transfers, and adequate nursing care staff in neonatal units also demonstrated protective effect in averting neonatal deaths. Conclusions: Countries investing in facility based newborn care should give impetus to establishing regionalized systems of perinatal care. Strengthening of lower level units with high case loads, can yield optimal reduction in NMR.
ABSTRACT
The neonatal mortality rate in India is high and stagnant. Special Care Newborn Units (SCNUs) have been set up to provide quality level II newborn-care services in several district hospitals to meet this challenge. The units are located in some remotest districts where the burden of neonatal deaths is high, and access to special newborn care is poor. The study was conducted to assess the functioning of SCNUs in eight rural districts of India. The evaluation was based on an analysis of secondary data from the eight units that had been functioning for at least one year. A cross-sectional survey was also conducted to assess the availability of human resources, equipment, and quality care. Descriptive statistics were used for analyzing the inputs (resources) and outcomes (morbidity and mortality). The rate of mortality among admitted neonates was taken as the key outcome variable to assess the performance of the units. Chi-square test was used for analyzing the trend of case-fatality rate over a period of 3-5 years considering the first year of operationalization as the base. Correlation coefficients were estimated to understand the possible association of case-fatality rate with factors, such as bed:doctor ratio, bed:nurse ratio, average duration of stay, and bed occupancy rate, and the asepsis score was determined. The rates of admission increased from a median of 16.7 per 100 deliveries in 2008 to 19.5 per 100 deliveries in 2009. The case-fatality rate reduced from 4% to 40% within one year of their functioning. Proportional mortality due to sepsis and low birthweight (LBW) declined significantly over two years (LBW <2.5 kg). The major reasons for admission and the major causes of deaths were birth asphyxia, sepsis, and LBW/prematurity. The units had a varying nurse:bed ratio (1:0.5-1:1.3). The bed occupancy rate ranged from 28% to 155% (median 103%), and the average duration of stay ranged from two days to 15 days (median 4.75 days). Repair and maintenance of equipment were a major concern. It is possible to set up and manage quality SCNUs and improve the survival of newborns with LBW and sepsis in developing countries, although several challenges relating to human resources, maintenance of equipment, and maintenance of asepsis remain.