Evaluación de procesos de una intervención: actividad física durante el embarazo y postparto / Avaliação dos processos de uma intervenção: atividade física durante a gravidez e o pós-parto / Evaluation of intervention processes: physical activity during pregnancy and postpartum

Objetivo: Evaluar los procesos de una intervención de actividad física durante el embarazo y postparto. Métodos: En el contexto de un programa social que combate la pobreza extrema, las beneficiarias (n=927) recibieron una intervención que consistió en la promoción de la práctica de actividad física, a través de consejería, talleres y materiales educativos. En 2008-9, 2010 y 2012 se visitaron unidades de salud urbanas y rurales, seleccionadas aleatoriamente, de cuatro entidades federativas de México. Se recolectó información de procesos a través de prestadores de servicios de salud, observación en consulta y aplicación de encuestas de salida a beneficiarias. Se estudiaron cuatro indicadores de implementación de la intervención: fidelidad a actividades planeadas; dosis entregada a la población; alcance de la población objetivo; y recepción de la intervención por embarazadas y en el posparto de las participantes. Resultados: Se visitaron unidades de salud en la etapa inicial (n=91), intermedia (n=47) y final (n=82) del estudio. La dosis liberada presentó un nivel del 81-86% de implementación. La fidelidad presentó <50% de implementación; se observaron mejoras significativas en la mayoría de los aspectos evaluados entre las diferentes etapas del estudio como en la capacitación de los prestadores de servicios de salud, el suministro de materiales, la consejería e la impartición de talleres en las unidades de salud. Conclusión: Se observaron importantes retos de implementación y contextuales para la implementación efectiva de la intervención de actividad física en los servicios de salud.

Objetivo: Avaliar os processos de uma intervenção de atividade física durante a gravidez e o pós-parto. Métodos: No contexto de um programa social de combate à pobreza extrema, as beneficiárias (n=927) receberam uma intervenção que consistia na promoção da prática de atividade física por meio de aconselhamento, oficinas e materiais educacionais. Em 2008-9, 2010 e 2012, foram visitadas unidades de saúde urbanas e rurais, selecionadas aleatoriamente, de quatro entidades federais do México. As informações do processo foram coletadas por prestadores de serviços de saúde, durante observação de consultas e através da aplicação de questionários às beneficiárias. Foram estudados quatro indicadores de implementação da intervenção: fidelidade às atividades planejadas, dose entregue à população, escopo da população-alvo, e acolhimento da intervenção por gestantes e puérperas. Resultados: As unidades de saúde foram visitadas nas etapas inicial (n = 91), intermediária (n = 47) e final (n = 82) do estudo. A dose liberada mostrou um nível de implementação de 81-86%. A fidelidade apresentou <50% de implementação e melhorias significativas foram observadas na maioria dos aspectos avaliados entre as diferentes etapas do estudo, como treinamento de prestadores de serviços de saúde, fornecimento de materiais, aconselhamento e realização de oficinas nas unidades de saúde. Conclusão: Importantes implementações e desafios contextuais foram observados para a efetiva implementação da intervenção de atividade física para beneficiárias dos serviços de saúde investigados.

Objective: To evaluate the process of an intervention on physical activity during pregnancy and postpartum. Methods: In the context of a social program that fights extreme poverty, the beneficiaries (n=927) receive an intervention that consists of the promotion of the practice of physical activity, through counseling, workshops, and educational materials. During 2008-9, 2010 and 2012, we visited health units from urban and rural areas, randomly selected from four states of Mexico. Health service providers collected process data during observation of consultations and through the application of questionnaires to the beneficiaries. Four indicators of implementation of the intervention were studied: fidelity to the planned activities, dose delivered to the population, scope of the target population, and reception of the intervention by pregnant women and postpartum women. Results: Health units were visited in the initial (n=91), intermediate (n=47), and final (n=82) stages of the study. The delivered dose showed an implementation level of 81-86%. Fidelity had <50% implementation and significant improvements were observed in most analyzed aspects between the different stages of the study, such as training of health service providers, the supply of materials, counseling, and workshops in health units. Conclusion: Important Implementation and contextual challenges were observed for the effective fulfillment of the intervention of physical activity into primary healthcare services.

Symposium Report: Effective and Safe Micronutrient Interventions, Weighing the Risks against the Benefits.

Micronutrient fortification of staple foods can be an effective strategy to combat micronutrient malnutrition. When planning on fortification, challenges faced include the collection of essential information on population food and nutrient intake patterns, as well as the use of this information in a method to select appropriate fortification levels. A symposium was organized aimed at discussing the existing approaches to set effective and safe micronutrient fortification levels and to outline the challenges and needs in this area. Two different approaches to establish effective and safe fortification levels for food fortification were presented. In the first approach, the Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) and Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) are used as cut-points in the micronutrient intake distribution to evaluate and simulate effective and safe micronutrient intakes. This was exemplified by challenges encountered in Guatemala and Cameroon towards unequal vitamin A intake distribution and the impact of the food vehicle choice. Secondly, the risk-benefit approach was presented as an approach in which risks and benefits of micronutrient intakes can be quantified and balanced in order to optimize fortification benefits with the least risks and to allow decision making. This was illustrated by a case on folic acid fortification in The Netherlands. Irrespective of the approach, food and nutrient intake data are required to identify potential vehicles for fortification, quantify the nutrient gap to be addressed, and set the appropriate level of fortification based on consumption pattern. Such information is rarely available to the quality and extent ideal to set fortification levels and requires regular updating, as exemplified in the case of sugar fortification in Guatemala. While the EAR cut-point method can be used to determine the proportion of the population meeting their required and safe nutrient intakes and set goals, riskbenefit assessment may offer an answer to commonly-asked questions as to whether, and at which levels, the benefits of increasing micronutrient intakes outweigh the risks.

Barreras y facilitadores para actividad física durante el embarazo y posparto en mujeres pobres de México / Barriers and facilitators for physical activity during pregnancy and postpartum in women living in poverty of Mexico

Objetivo. Explorar percepciones de proveedores de salud y beneficiarías del Programa Oportunidades sobre la práctica de actividad física durante el embarazo y posparto, e identificar características de la consejería sobre el tema en el primer nivel de atención en salud. Material y métodos. Estudio de métodos mixtos que forma parte de una intervención en nutrición del Programa Oportunidades. La información cualitativa se colectó por entrevista (50 mujeres; 34 proveedores de salud) y se obtuvo información cuantitativa a partir de un cuestionario (n=88 mujeres; n=64 proveedores; n=111 observaciones de consulta). Resultados. Se documentaron barreras a) individuales: falta de tiempo y de apoyo social; b) socioculturales: prejuicios de pares y familiares, y falta de instructores, y c) ambientales: falta de espacios físicos seguros y apropiados. 38% de las mujeres reporta haber recibido consejería sobre el tema versus 63.4% de proveedores que reportan haberla dado (p=0.002). Conclusiones. Urgen capacitación a proveedores y promoción de la actividad física que eliminen los prejuicios asociados al tema durante el embarazo y posparto.

Objective.To explore perceptions of healthcare providers and beneficiaries of Oportunidades program on physical activity during pregnancy and post-partum; and identify current reported practices related to counseling on physical activity in the primary healthcare services in Mexico. Materials and methods. A mixed methods approach was used which is part of a nutrition intervention of the Oportunidades program. Qualitative information was collected through interviews (50=women; 34=providers) and quantitative information was collected by questionnaires (n=88 women; n=64 provider; n=111 observations during consultation). Results. The main barriers were: a) individual (lack of time and social support to childcare); b) sociocultural (gender bias derived from peer groups or family and lack of instructors), and c) environmental (lack of safe and adequate physical places). Only 38% of beneficiary women reported having been counseled on physical activity vs 63.4% of providers who reported having counseled on physical activity (p=0.002). Conclusion. There is a need to train healthcare providers and to promote physical activity during pregnancy and post-partum for reducing associated biases.

Consideraciones sobre la elaboración de las directrices de nutrición de la Organización Mundial de la Salud y su implementación / Considerations on the development of nutrition-related guidelines by the World Health Organization and their implementation

La Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) sigue un proceso complejo y riguroso para la elaboración de directrices mundiales. En el caso de las directrices relacionadas con nutrición, la participación conjunta de las autoridades de los Estados Miembros de la OMS y sus aliados, incluidos aquellos de la economía social y solidaria, es clave para fortalecer el proceso de elaboración de directrices informadas por las pruebas científicas y su posterior implementación, como parte de las estrategias nacionales de salud pública. Para las autoridades en materia de salud y desarrollo social, la OMS desarrolla una serie de herramientas para la formulación de políticas informadas por las pruebas científicas, considerando su pertinencia, relevancia e implementabilidad. Este proceso de adopción y adaptación debe considerar aspectos de equidad, para evitar la ampliación de brechas en salud. Las directrices mundiales de la OMS contribuyen a que las intervenciones en nutrición en sus Estados Miembros sean implementadas de manera adecuada. Dos experiencias de implementación de intervenciones en nutrición, una en Panamá y otra en Perú, ejemplifican este proceso. El artículo concluye sugiriendo profundizar en el conocimiento y aplicación de la investigación de la implementación de programas para identificar los factores que permiten a una intervención ser efectiva, tener una mejor estrategia de escalabilidad y contribuir a la equidad en salud.

The World Health Organization (WHO) follows a complex and rigorous process to develop global guidelines. With regard to nutrition-related guidelines, the joint participation of national authorities from Member States and their partners, including those of the social economy, is key to strengthening the process of evidence-informed guideline development and the subsequent implementation as part of national public health strategies. WHO puts forward a series of tools that can assist national authorities on health and social development in the elaboration of evidenceinformed policies, considering their pertinence, relevance and implementability. This adoption and adaptation process must consider equity in order to avoid widening existing inequities. WHO global nutrition guidelines contribute to the effective implementation of nutrition interventions in Member States. Two experiences of implementation, one in Panama and one in Peru, exemplify this process. The paper ends by suggesting a deeper understanding and utilization of implementation research during programmes to identify what factors ensure effective interventions, appropriate scale up strategies and greater health equity.

Promotion of Zinc Tablets with ORS through Child Health Weeks Improves Caregiver Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practice on Treatment of Diarrhoea in Nigeria.

We examined whether the Maternal, Newborn and Child Health Weeks (MNCHW) in Nigeria would present an opportunity to raise awareness of and demand for the use of zinc and ORS in the treatment for diarrhoea, guided by a conceptual framework designed to assess three theoretical underpinnings (characteristics and performance standard of the health workers, potential reach, and intensity of the intervention), along the impact pathway. Zinc and ORS with education for their appropriate use during the next diarrhoeal episode were delivered as part of the November 2010 and May 2011 MNCHW. On the day of but before participating in MNCHW activities, semi-structured interviews were used for collecting information on knowledge, attitudes, and practice (KAP) relating to diarrhoea from 602 caregivers with children aged less than five years. Forty-eight health workers were also interviewed. Nearly all health workers (98%) correctly mentioned the dosage of zinc while only 58% correctly stated the preparation of ORS. The proportion of caregivers with knowledge on the treatment for diarrhoea increased from 46.4% in November 2010 pre-MNCHW to 71.3% in May 2011 pre-MNCHW interviews (p<0.001). More caregivers correctly mentioned the dosage of zinc (80.9%) and stated the preparation of ORS (88.8%) in the November 2010 exit interview immediately after the MNCHW encounter compared to the levels a few months later in the home follow-up visit (53.1% and 37.4% respectively). After attending both rounds of November 2010 and May 2011 MNCHW, caregivers’ knowledge on the treatment of diarrhoea increased seven times compared to the caregivers who attended the May 2011 MNCHW only (OR=7.0, p<0.001). Additionally, caregivers were 40% less likely to seek advice outside the home in the treatment for diarrhoea if they had attended both the MNCHWs than if they had attended the May 2011 MNCHW only (OR=0.6, p<0.029). We conclude that providing opportunities for caregivers to receive a sample of zinc and ORS and to learn about its use in the treatment for diarrhoea, from trained health workers during MNCHW, has the potential to increase KAP relating to the use of zinc and ORS in the treatment for diarrhoea and for future diarrhoeal episodes.

Scaling up an Integrated Strategy for Attention to Nutrition (EsIAN) to Prevent Stunting, Micronutrient Deficiency and Obesity in Mexico.

Objectives: Describes the scaling-up process of the EsIAN to prevent stunting, micronutrient deficiency and obesity during the 1,000 days of life. Methods: A case study that used participant observation and document review as primary methods for data collection. Results: Lessons learned and recommendations from the pilot study were incorporated. The training was enhanced with a computer training course to facilitate that it reaches all levels of the cascade. The behavior change communication strategy was pilot tested and further reformulated to better provide answer to the needs of health providers, community volunteers and target populations. A supportive supervision system was designed and will be implemented to follow up. The political will of the new government and its need to show short-term results played a key role in the scaling-up process. Time, coordination and budget constraint represent major challenges for the scaling up and its impact. Conclusions: Strategy will reach about 80,000 health providers and volunteers and more than six million beneficiaries' families. The scaling-up of this evidence-based intervention in to the window of opportunity for healthy growth and development is a promising way to impact the health and survival of the nation´s children.

Scaling up a National Training System to Address Nutrition Transition at Primary Care in Mexico.

Objectives: Mexico, as many developing countries, is undergoing a nutrition transition characterized by the coexistence of undernutrition (stunting and micronutrient deficiencies) alongside obesity and chronic diseases. Training of health workers needs to build and reinforce the essential competences, skills, and attitudes adapted to this changing context. The objective of this paper is two-fold: 1) to describe the process of development of a national training system at the primary care level to address nutrition transition in Mexico, and 2) to identify the factors, processes, and strategies conducive to the establishment of an effective national training system. Methods: This paper is a case study that uses participant observation and document review as primary methods for data collection. Results: Based on formative research, we developed an in-person cascade training for primary care physicians, nurses, and community health workers. We tested and evaluated the training in four states in Mexico. Results showed that it was not successful in reaching the lower levels of the cascade. We redesigned the training system by: 1) developing monitoring and supervision components, 2) reducing the number of levels of the cascade, and 3) developing virtual (online and offline) training modules. In addition, instructional designers adopted a competence-based approach to redesign the training, and structured new and interactive activities to enhance learning. Conclusions: Training systems should have monitoring and supervision components to ensure adequate adoption and implementation. The use of technology and instructional design has the potential to improve the effectiveness of the training system.

The Integrated Strategy for Attention in Nutrition (EsIAN) Reduces the Prevalence of Anemia in Children 6 to 59 Months in the Context of a Conditional Cash-transfer Program in Mexico.

Objectives: EsIAN is designed to improve nutritional outcomes through a strong behavior change campaign and free distribution of nutritional products (micronutrient powders, MNP and/or a fortified complementary food, FCF) for children 6 m to 5 y of age living in poverty. Both products were distributed in rural areas and MNP only in urban. We assessed changes in the prevalence of anemia in children, in a pre-post effectiveness trial. Methods: EsIAN was implemented in 2008 in 91 health care centers in central Mexico. Effectiveness was assessed in 2012 using a mixed methods approach. Data from two crosssectional samples of children aged 6 to 59 months (Rural: 2008 n=802, 2012 n=356; 2008 n=569, Urban: 2012 n=546) were analyzed adjusting standard errors by health care center clusters. Results: In rural areas, the concentration of hemoglobin increased from 12.0±0.1 (mean±SE) in 2008 to 12.7±0.1 g/dL in 2012 (P˂0.001). The prevalence of anemia dropped significantly both in urban (23.1±2.5% in 2008; 16.1±2.0% in 2012; P<0.05) and rural areas (23.5±2.0% in 2008; 7.0±1.3% in 2012; P˂0.001). The drop was largest among children aged 6 to 23 months in rural areas (28.3±4.5% percentage points reduction). Conclusions: We document here a dramatic reduction in the prevalence of anemia in communities where EsIAN was implemented. Although this pre-post design does not allow for direct causal attribution, impact pathway review suggests that these changes are likely to be due to the EsIAN.

Consumption of Higher Frequency and Duration of Micronutrient Powders Does not Increase Diarrhea Morbidity among Peruvian Children 6-11 Months of Age.

Objectives: There have been concerns around the safety of daily iron-containing multiple micronutrient powders (MNP) in young children in malaria-endemic and malaria-free environments. We analysed the effects of different MNP delivery regimens on diarrhea-related morbidity in children in a malaria-free area of Peru. Methods: A total of 400 children 6 to 11 months of age, were randomized to one of four groups: every-other day for 6 months (A), daily for 6 months (B), every-other-day for 12 months (C), and daily for 12 months (D). All children were followed for 12 months. All MNP had the same formulation, including 12.5 mg iron, and zinc, vitamin A, vitamin C and folic acid. MNP were provided to caregivers every month and data on consumption and diarrhea morbidity were assessed twice a month. Point prevalence of diarrhea morbidity was calculated as number of days ill per total days of observation. Results: Data of 399 (99.8%) children were analyzed by intention-to-treat. Group A was the control with 2.07% diarrhea days. No differences in diarrhea morbidity were observed among groups (group B: 1.85% days with diarrhea (OR:0.89; 95%CI0.79,1.01); group C:2.06% (OR:0.96.95%CI:0.88,1.12); group D:2.14% (OR:1.03;95%CI: 0.92,1.16). There were also no differences among regimens, stratified by age at baseline (6-8 mo vs 9-11 mo) but overall young children were ill more frequently than older children. Conclusions: Daily consumption of MNPs for longer periods of time, does not lead to increased diarrhea compared to every-other-day supplementation for 6 months. The reasons for the lower OR of daily consumption for 6 months are being explored.

An Integrated Strategy for Attention in Nutrition (EsIAN) Increases Physicians' and Nurses' Nutrition Knowledge and Perceptions in Mexico.

Objectives: To assess changes in physicians' and nurses nutrition knowledge and perceptions from EsIAN. EsIAN was developed to attend to the nutritional needs of Oportunidades beneficiary families. Oportunidades is the Mexican conditional cash transfer program. In Mexico, appropriate attention to undernutrition and anemia is needed simultaneous with attention to overweight and obesity. EsIAN includes nutritional supplements and a behavior change communication strategy with nutrition counseling tools. The strategy was implemented on pilot scale; we report here the effects on health-care providers' nutrition knowledge and perceptions. Methods: EsIAN was implemented in 2008 in 91 clinics in central Mexico. Effectiveness was assessed in 2012 using a mixed methods approach. Data from two cross-sectional samples were analyzed adjusting standard errors by health care center clusters. Results: Physicians' and nurses' (PN) perceived they have more than 90% capacity to implement the EsIAN in their everyday's practice. Compared to baseline, in 2012 a significantly higher proportion of PN reported recommending exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months (85.7% vs. 23.4%) and breastfeeding techniques (79.8% vs. 12.8%) (p<0.001). More than 88% monitored children growth using weight-for-height and height-for-age indicators as recommended by EsIAN. Nutritional supplements seemed appropriate to 97.8% and 92.3% urban and rural PN, respectively. Conclusions: EsIAN is a highly accepted strategy that can be nationally implemented and is effective to improve providers knowledge and perceptions of essential nutrition actions.

Designing Rigorous Program Evaluations to Assess the Impact on Child Growth of Integrated IYCN Programs in Burkina Faso and Ethiopia.

Objectives: The Micronutrient Initiative and academic partners have designed two program impact evaluations of Infant and Young Child Nutrition (IYCN) interventions in Ethiopia and Burkina Faso. The programs include enhanced behavioral change interventions on IYCN, improved quality of local complementary feeding, provision of Multiple Micronutrient Powders (MNPs) to children 6 to 23 months, and ensuring an integrated preventive and community-based management of moderate acute malnutrition. The objective is to critically review key elements for consideration in the design of future IYCN program evaluations. Methods: Evaluation designs were based on 1) selection of primary and secondary outcome indicators based on the Program Impact Pathways (PIP), 2) Considerations for assignment of intervention and comparison groups; 3) Considerations on designs in the context of integrated programs; 4) Ability to monitor adverse events within a program. Results: Following PIP, both impact and process indicators were identified. In Ethiopia, a matched-control cluster design and in Burkina Faso a cluster randomized matched-control design was used with repeated cross-sectional surveys. Sample size calculations took into account the selection of age-appropriate cohorts for the different impact indicators, and a population based sampling scheme. Following recent discussions around the safety of iron-containing supplements in young children without iron deficiency, the evaluations also included practical methods to assess potential adverse events in program settings. Conclusions: The complexity of measuring impact on child nutrition in an integrated programmatic context is often underestimated, leading to evaluations with inconclusive results or impacts that are difficult to attribute to program. Careful design could help avoid such pitfalls.

A Health Systems Strengthening Approach to Improve Nutrition of Pregnant Women and Newborns in Ethiopia, Kenya and Senegal.

Objectives: Coverage of nutrition interventions for pregnant women is poor, but potential for improvement is limited where health systems are weak. The Community-based Maternal and Newborn Health and Nutrition (CBMNH) program aims to increase utilization and quality of health and nutrition services for pregnant women and newborns by strengthening health systems. With the program's focus on increasing demand for prenatal and birth services, we implemented Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices (KAP) surveys to identify key individuals/factors influencing demand and use. Methods: As part of the baseline surveys, we randomly selected women with children 0-11 months. Using mixed methods, we assessed current KAP surrounding nutrition in antenatal care. Results: We identified gaps in the provision and utilization of services, particularly antenatal care (ANC), iron-folic acid supplements (IFA), among others. The proportion of women who had attended 4 ANC visits during pregnancy was 4.8% in Ethiopia, 43% in Kenya, and 50% in Senegal; about a fifth in Ethiopia and Kenya and 60.7% in Senegal attended ANC in the first trimester. Only 3.4% of women in Ethiopia, 36.7% in Kenya and 93.6% in Senegal had taken ≥90 IFA tablets during pregnancy. Qualitative data found that knowledge and attitudes of women regarding care seeking for ANC and benefits of IFA during pregnancy period was low. Conclusions: In all 3 countries, but particularly Ethiopia, health and nutrition services for pregnant women and newborns are under-provided and under-utilized. This evaluation revealed both demand and supply side barriers that are now being addressed as part of the on-going program.

Nepal's National Scale-up of The Iron Intensification Program Improved Iron Folic Acid Supplementation Coverage in Pregnancy and Showed Potential for Reducing Anemia.

Objectives: A national scale-up of an integrated facility and community-based delivery of iron and folic acid (IFA) supplements in Nepal spanned almost ten years through the Iron Intensification Program (IIP), over which time national coverage of IFA in pregnant women increased from 23% to 80%. The objective of this research was to estimate the potential effect of duration of district-level exposure to IIP on IFA coverage, and on anemia in mothers in Nepal. Methods: With data of the 2006 and 2011 Demographic Health Surveys (DHS), we used multiple regression modelling and controlled for IIP district exposure, age, pregnancy status, wealth, religion, parity in the last 5 years, weight, education, and ecological region (Terai, Hills & Mountain regions). Results: In 2006, women who had given birth during the intervention implementation period (n=5,110) exposed to the intervention for 1-3 years had a 7% reduced the odds of having anemia (OR: 0.93; 95CI 0.91, 0.95). In 2011, among women who had given birth in the previous 5 years in the Terai (n=864), intervention exposure for 3-5 years suggested a 45% reduction in the odds of having anemia (OR: 0.55; 95CI 0.31, 0.99). Intervention exposure also suggested benefits in likelihoods of mothers receiving IFA (6-11%), and de-worming (12-28%). Conclusions: These results suggest that the IIP had a role in increasing IFA and de-worming coverage and may have protected against anemia. Nepal's example suggests that large scale national programs with long term commitment can successfully impact IFA coverage and potentially impact anemia.

Compliance to micronutrient supplementation in children 3 to 24 months of age from a semi-rural community in Mexico

OBJECTIVE: To identify associated factors to compliance for multiple micronutrient (MM) or iron and vitamin A (IVITA) supplementation, in children (3 to 24 months old). MATERIALS AND METHODS: A database (n=465 children) from a randomized, controlled, clinical trial, carried out in a semi-rural setting in Mexico, was analyzed. The compliance rate of MM and IVITA supplements was calculated. Adequate compliance rate (AC>80%), and its association with children and households characteristics, was determined. RESULTS: The compliance mean was high (MM:78.2%, IVITA:80.1%; p<0.05). The odds of AC were 59% greater in the children of IVITA than with MM group, although the estimate was only marginally significant (p=0.052). Maternal education (p<0.001), child birth weight (p=0.003), and children with cough (p<0.001) or fever (p=0.024) were significantly associated with AC and significantly marginal was maternal indigenous (p=0.071). CONCLUSION: The high AC was consistent with others efficacy studies. More research is needed to document physiological, cultural, social and operative factors affecting compliance with supplementation.

OBJETIVO: Identificar factores asociados con el cumplimiento del consumo de suplementos con micronutrimentos múltiples (MM) o con hierro y vitamina A (FEVITA) en niños (<24 meses de edad). MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Información de un ensayo clínico aleatorizado, doble ciego en una localidad semirrural en México. Se calculó el porcentaje de cumplimiento (n=465 niños), cumplimiento adecuado (CA: >80%) y su asociación con varias características. RESULTADOS: El cumplimiento fue alto (MM: 78.2%, FEVITA: 80.1%; p<0.05). Los momios de CA fueron 59% mayores en niños del grupo FEVITA que en MM (p=0.052). Escolaridad materna (p<0.001), peso al nacer del niño (p=0.003), porcentaje de tiempo con tos (p<0.001) y con fiebre (p=0.024) y marginalmente, la condición indígena materna (p=0.071) se asociaron con el CA. CONCLUSIONES: La alta tasa de cumplimiento fue consistente con otros estudios. Es necesaria mayor investigación sobre factores fisiológicos, culturales, sociales y operativos relacionados con el cumplimiento del consumo de suplementos.

Need for coordinated programs to improve global health by optimizing salt and iodine intake / Necesidad de programas coordinados para mejorar la salud a escala mundial mediante la optimización de la ingesta de sal y yodo

High dietary salt is a major cause of increased blood pressure, the leading risk for death worldwide. The World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended that salt intake be less than 5 g/day, a goal that only a small proportion of people achieve. Iodine deficiency can cause cognitive and motor impairment and, if severe, hypothyroidism with serious mental and growth retardation. More than 2 billion people worldwide are at risk of iodine deficiency. Preventing iodine deficiency by using salt fortified with iodine is a major global public health success. Programs to reduce dietary salt are technically compatible with programs to prevent iodine deficiency through salt fortification. However, for populations to fully benefit from optimum intake of salt and iodine, the programs must be integrated. This review summarizes the scientific basis for salt reduction and iodine fortification programs, the compatibility of the programs, and the steps that need to be taken by the WHO, national governments, and nongovernmental organizations to ensure that populations fully benefit from optimal intake of salt and iodine. Specifically, expert groups must be convened to help countries implement integrated programs and context-specific case studies of successfully integrated programs; lessons learned need to be compiled and disseminated. Integrated surveillance programs will be more efficient and will enhance current efforts to optimize intake of iodine and salt. For populations to fully benefit, governments need to place a high priority on integrating these two important public health programs.

El alto contenido de sal en la dieta es una causa principal de incremento de la presión arterial, el principal factor de riesgo de muerte a escala mundial. La Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) ha recomendado que el consumo de sal sea inferior a 5 g/d, una meta que solo logran una pequeña proporción de personas. La falta de yodo puede causar deficiencia cognoscitiva y motora y, si es grave, hipotiroidismo, con grave retraso mental y del crecimiento. Más de dos mil millones de personas en todo el mundo presentan riesgo de carencia de yodo. La prevención de la carencia de yodo mediante el empleo de sal yodada constituye una importante conquista de salud pública a escala mundial. Los programas cuyo objeto es reducir el contenido de sal en la dieta son técnicamente compatibles con los programas de prevención de la carencia de yodo mediante el enriquecimiento de la sal. Sin embargo, para que las poblaciones se puedan beneficiar plenamente de una ingesta óptima de sal y yodo, es preciso integrar ambos tipos de programa. Este estudio resume las bases científicas de los programas de reducción de sal y enriquecimiento con yodo, la compatibilidad de esos programas, y las medidas que deben adoptar la OMS, los gobiernos nacionales y las organizaciones no gubernamentales para garantizar que las poblaciones se beneficien plenamente de una ingesta óptima de sal y yodo. En concreto, es preciso reunir a grupos de expertos para ayudar a los países a aplicar programas integrados y llevar a cabo estudios de casos en contextos específicos de programas integrados eficaces; es preciso recopilar y difundir las enseñanzas extraídas. La integración de los programas de vigilancia los hará más eficaces y mejorará las iniciativas actuales para optimizar la ingesta de yodo y sal. Para que las poblaciones puedan beneficiarse plenamente, es preciso que los gobiernos asignen una alta prioridad a la integración de estos dos importantes tipos de programas de salud pública.

Prenatal multiple micronutrient supplementation impact on biochemical indicators during pregnancy and postpartum / Efecto de la suplementación prenatal con micronutrimentos múltiples en indicadores bioquímicos durante el embarazo y el posparto

Objective. The objective of this analysis was to test the impact of daily supplementation with multiple micronutrients (MM) during pregnancy on Zn, vitamin A and folate status compared to iron only (Fe). Material and Methods. The study was carried out during 1997-2000 in a semi-urban community in Morelos state, Mexico. Women were randomly assigned to MM (n= 249) or Fe (n= 258) and received supplements daily (6 d/wk) under supervision by the field team from recruitment (approximately 9 weeks pregnancy) until delivery. Blood samples were collected on a sub-sample of women at baseline, 32 weeks pregnancy and one month postpartum (1PP) and assessed for serum zinc, retinol and whole blood folate (baseline and 1PP only). A breast milk sample was extracted at 1PP and assessed for retinol content. Result. At baseline there was no significant difference between supplementation groups in mean Zn, retinol or folate concentrations or the prevalence of deficiencies (Zn 12.2%, vitamin A 2.8%, folate 5.3%). Mean change in Zn and retinol concentrations from baseline to 32 weeks pregnancy did not differ between groups or between baseline and 1PP for Zn, retinol or folate. At 1PP, there was a tendency (p= 0.09) towards a lower prevalence of folate deficiency/depletion in the MM group (10.0%) than the Fe group (18.5%). Conclusions. MM supplementation during pregnancy did not improve zinc or vitamin A status compared to Fe only. There is some indication that folate status may have improved with MM supplementation despite low prevalence of deficiency. While lack of response in serum retinol may be explained by generally adequate status, the lack of impact on zinc status requires further exploration.

Objetivo. Evaluar el efecto de la suplementación diaria con múltiples micronutrimentos (MM) durante el embarazo en el estado de zinc, vitamina A y folato comparado con la suplementación sólo con hierro (Fe). Material y métodos. El estudio se realizó en una comunidad semiurbana en el estado de Morelos, México, entre 1997 y 2000. Las mujeres fueron asignadas aleatoriamente a recibir un suplemento de MM (n= 249) o Fe (n= 258) diariamente (6 días/semana), cuyo consumo fue supervisado por personal de campo, desde la evaluación basal (aproximadamente 9 semanas de gestación) hasta el parto. En una submuestra de mujeres participantes, se tomaron muestras de sangre venosa, a las 9 y 32 semanas de embarazo y al mes posparto (1PP). Se midieron las concentraciones séricas de zinc y retinol y la concentración de folato en sangre total, esta última sólo en la evaluación basal y al 1PP. Además se colectó una muestra de leche materna al 1PP, en donde se midió la concentración de retinol. Resultados. En la evaluación basal no hubo diferencias significativas entre grupos en las concentraciones promedio de zinc y retinol, ni en la concentración de folato o en la prevalencia de deficiencias (Zn 12.2%, vitamina A 2.8%, folato 5.3%). El cambio promedio en zinc y retinol de la evaluación basal a la semana 32 de embarazo, no fue diferente entre grupos, tampoco entre la evaluación basal y al 1PP en zinc, retinol o folato. Al 1PP hubo una tendencia (p= 0.09) a menor prevalencia de deficiencia/depleción de folato en el grupo de MM (10.0%) que en el grupo Fe (18.5%). Conclusiones. La suplementación con MM durante el embarazo no mejoró el estado de zinc y vitamina A comparada con la suplementación sólo con Fe. Sin embargo, el estado de folato puede haber mejorado con la suplementación con MM, a pesar de la baja prevalencia de deficiencia de folato. La falta de efecto...

Multiple micronutrient supplementation and dietary energy intake in pregnant women

OBJECTIVE: To compare dietary intake of women supplemented with multiple micronutrients (MM) or iron only during pregnancy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Design: Randomized, double-blind, controlled community-based trial. Setting: One semi-urban community in Central Mexico. Subjects: Pregnant women identified before week 13 of pregnancy, willing to provide informed consent. Interventions: Women were randomly assigned to receive daily supplementation with MM or iron only from recruitment until delivery. Supplements were delivered to the participants' home and compliance observed daily. Dietary intake was assessed by repeat 24-hr recall. Data were analyzed using non-parametric tests and multiple regression analysis to determine the impact of MM supplementation on dietary intake of energy and select micronutrients. RESULTS: During the third trimester, women in the MM group consumed more energy and iron from dietary sources than women in the iron only group. After adjustment for differences between the groups at baseline, women in the MM group consumed 111.3 kcal/day more (p<0.05) energy. The difference in iron intake was not significant after adjusting for the increase in energy intake. CONCLUSIONS: Women consuming MM supplements during pregnancy increased energy intake from dietary sources without a concurrent increase in micronutrient density. Future studies should include measures of appetite and physical activity during pregnancy to determine the implications of additional energy intake for weight gain and retention.

OBJETIVO: Comparar la dieta de mujeres suplementada con múltiples micronutrimentos (MM) o sólo con hierro durante el embarazo. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Diseño: ensayo comunitario, aleatorizado, controlado, doble ciego. Lugar: una comunidad semiurbana en el México central. Participantes: mujeres embarazadas identificadas antes de la semana 13 de embarazo, dispuestas a entregar el consentimiento informado. Actividades: las mujeres fueron asignadas en forma aleatoria a recibir suplementación diaria con MM o exclusivamente hierro desde el reclutamiento hasta el parto. Los suplementos se entregaron en la casa de las participantes y se observó su cumplimiento con frecuencia diaria. El consumo dietético fue valorado por mediciones repetidas de recordatorio de alimentos de 24 h. Los datos se analizaron mediante pruebas no paramétricas y análisis de regresión múltiple, para determinar el impacto de la suplementación MM en el consumo dietético de energía y micronutrimentos seleccionados. RESULTADOS: durante el tercer trimestre, la mujer asignada al grupo MM consumió más energía y hierro de fuentes dietéticas que la mujer asignada al grupo de sólo hierro. Después de los ajustes para las diferencias entre grupos en la línea basal, la mujer del grupo MM consumió 111.3 kcal/día más (p< 0.05) de energía. La diferencia en el consumo de hierro no fue significante después de los ajustes para el incremento en el consumo de energía. CONCLUSIONES: la mujer que consume suplementos MM durante el embarazo aumenta el consumo de energía a partir de fuentes dietéticas sin un incremento concurrente en la densidad de micronutrimentos. Estudios futuros deberían incluir mediciones del apetito y de la actividad física durante el embarazo para determinar las consecuencias del consumo de energía adicional en la ganancia de peso y la retención.

Smoky indoor cooking fires are associated with elevated hemoglobin concentration in iron-deficient women

OBJETIVO: La contaminación del ambiente doméstico por la combustión de materiales bioorgánicos utilizados como combustible, tales como la madera y los desechos agrícolas, está asociada con un mayor riesgo de padecer problemas respiratorios. Su efecto sobre otros aspectos de la salud, como el crecimiento fetal, no ha sido aún documentado adecuadamente. El objetivo del presente estudio, realizado en mujeres que utilizan combustible bioorgánico para cocinar en el interior de sus viviendas, fue determinar si el empleo de fuego "con humo" se asocia con una mayor concentración de hemoglobina en comparación con el uso de fogones "sin humo," es decir, cocinas diseñadas para reducir el nivel de contaminación del aire en el interior de las viviendas. Esta investigación es parte de una serie de estudios preliminares realizados para determinar la factibilidad y los posibles beneficios para la salud de una intervención aleatorizada dirigida a las cocinas, con el fin de reducir la contaminación del aire doméstico provocada por el empleo de combustibles bioorgánicos para cocinar. MÉTODOS: Entre marzo y agosto de 1994 se realizó un estudio observacional transversal en mujeres indígenas que utilizaban combustible bioorgánico y cocinaban en el interior de sus viviendas en comunidades rurales de las zonas montañosas de Guatemala. Se estudió a 89 mujeres que empleaban fogones sin humo (grupo no expuesto) y 185 mujeres de las mismas comunidades que empleaban fogones que generaban humo (grupo expuesto). Ninguna estaba embarazada. Se tomaron muestras de sangre venosa y se determinaron las concentraciones de hemoglobina y de ferritina. Mediante análisis de regresión lineal múltiple se investigó la relación entre la exposición (fogones sin humo o fogones con humo) y la concentración de hemoglobina, y se hicieron ajustes por posibles factores de confusión. RESULTADOS: No se encontró que la exposición al factor estudiado (fogones sin humo o con humo) tuviera algún efecto en la concentración de hemoglobina, ya fuera mediante análisis con una sola variable o con varias. Durante el análisis post hoc habitual para determinar si algún subgrupo particular presentaba elevación de la concentración de hemoglobina, se encontró que el empleo de fuego con humo para cocinar estaba asociado en grado significativo con la elevación de la concentración de hemoglobina en 5,2 g/L entre las mujeres con concentraciones bajas de ferritina (P < 0,10)...

Hemoglobin measured by Hemocue and a reference method in venous and capillary blood: a validation study

Objective. To assess the comparability of hemoglobin concentration (Hb) in venous and capillary blood measured by Hemocue and an automated spectrophotometer (Celldyn) and to document the influence of type of blood (capillary or venous) and analysis method on anemia prevalence estimates. Material and Methods. Between February and May 2000, capillary and venous samples were collected from 72 adults and children at Hospital del Niño Morelense (Morelos State Children's Hospital) in Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico, and assessed for Hb using the Hemocue and Celldyn methods. Estimated Hb levels were compared using the concordance correlation coefficient and Student's t test for paired data. The sensitivity and specificity for anemia diagnosis were estimated and compared between type of blood and method of assessment. Results. Capillary blood had higher Hb (+0.5g/dl) than venous blood in adults and children, as did samples assessed by Celldyn compared to Hemocue (+0.3g/dl). Specificity to detect anemia was adequate (>0.90) but sensitivity was low for capillary blood assessed by Hemocue (<0.80). Conclusions. The difference in Hb between venous and capillary blood is likely related to biological variability. Hemoglobin concentration in capillary blood assessed by Hemocue provides an adequate estimation of population anemia prevalence but may result in excess false negative diagnoses among individuals. The results of this study stress the importance of sample collection technique, particularly for children. Method of analysis and sampling site need to be taken into consideration in field studies.

Objetivo. Evaluar la comparabilidad de la concentración de hemoglobina (Hb) en sangre venosa y capilar medida por Hemocue y por espectrofotómetro automatizado (Celldyn), así como documentar la influencia del tipo de sangre (capilar o venosa) y del método de análisis sobre la prevalencia de anemia. Material y métodos. De febrero a mayo de 2000, se recolectaron muestras de sangre capilar y venosa en 72 adultos y niños en el Hospital del Niño Morelense, Cuernavaca, Morelos, México. Se determinaron los niveles de Hb con los métodos Hemocue y Celldyn. Las cifras de Hb estimadas se compararon con el coeficiente de concordancia y la prueba pareada de t de Student. También se comparó la sensibilidad y especificidad para el diagnóstico de anemia, utilizando sangre de los dos tipos y métodos de análisis. Resultados. La Hb fue mayor en sangre capilar comparada con sangre venosa (+0.5g/dl) en adultos y niños, y en las determinaciones por Celldyn comparadas con las de Hemocue (+0.3 g/dl). La especificidad para el diagnóstico de anemia fue adecuada (>0.90), mientras que la sensibilidad fue baja para las muestras capilares medidas por Hemocue (<0.80). Conclusiones. Es probable que la diferencia en la Hb entre sangre venosa y capilar refleje variabilidad biológica. La Hb en sangre capilar medida por Hemocue provee una estimación adecuada de la prevalencia de anemia en poblaciones, pero podría resultar en un exceso de diagnósticos falsos negativos. Los resultados de este estudio ponen énfasis en la importancia de la técnica de recolección de la muestra, particularmente en niños. Los métodos de análisis y tipos de muestra de sangre deben ser tomados en cuenta en estudios de campo.