El monitoreo orientado a la equidad en el contexto de la cobertura universal de salud / Equity-oriented monitoring in the context of universal health coverage

El monitoreo de las desigualdades en la salud es fundamental para el logro progresivo y equitativo de la cobertura universal de salud. Para que tenga éxito, el monitoreo global de las desigualdades debe ser lo suficientemente intuitivo a fin de que pueda adoptarse ampliamente y debe mantener al mismo tiempo su credibilidad técnica. En este artículo se analizan algunas consideraciones metodológicas para el monitoreo de la cobertura universal de salud orientado a la equidad y se proponen recomendaciones con respecto al monitoreo y el establecimiento de metas. La desigualdad es multidimensional, de modo que el grado de desigualdad puede variar considerablemente entre distintas dimensiones, como la posición económica, la educación, el sexo y la residencia urbana o rural. Por ello, el monitoreo global debe incluir dimensiones complementarias de la desigualdad (como la posición económica y la residencia urbana o rural) y el sexo. Para una dimensión dada de la desigualdad, deben establecerse subgrupos para el monitoreo considerando la aplicabilidad de los criterios entre los países y la heterogeneidad de los subgrupos. En el caso de la desigualdad asociada a la posición económica, recomendamos formar subgrupos utilizando quintiles y para la desigualdad por residencia urbana o rural, recomendamos una categorización binaria. La desigualdad abarca las poblaciones, por lo que los enfoques apropiados para el monitoreo deben basarse en comparaciones entre dos subgrupos (enfoque de brecha) o entre múltiples subgrupos (enfoque de gradiente o espectro completo). Al medirse la desigualdad, las mediciones absolutas y relativas deben comunicarse al mismo tiempo, junto con los datos desagregados; la desigualdad debe informarse junto con el promedio nacional. Recomendamos establecer metas que se basen en reducciones proporcionales de la desigualdad absoluta en los grupos poblacionales. Crear la capacidad de monitorear las desigualdades en la salud es oportuno, pertinente e importante. El desarrollo de sistemas de información de salud de alta calidad, incluidas la recolección, el análisis y la interpretación de los datos y las prácticas de presentación de informes vinculadas a los ciclos de revisión y evaluación en los sistemas de salud, permitirá realizar un monitoreo eficaz de las desigualdades en la salud a escala mundial y nacional. Estas medidas apoyarán el logro progresivo de la cobertura universal de salud orientado a la equidad.

Monitoring inequalities in health is fundamental to the equitable and progressive realization of universal health coverage (UHC). A successful approach to global inequality monitoring must be intuitive enough for widespread adoption, yet maintain technical credibility. This article discusses methodological considerations for equity-oriented monitoring of UHC, and proposes recommendations for monitoring and target setting. Inequality is multidimensional, such that the extent of inequality may vary considerably across different dimensions such as economic status, education, sex, and urban/rural residence. Hence, global monitoring should include complementary dimensions of inequality (such as economic status and urban/rural residence) as well as sex. For a given dimension of inequality, subgroups for monitoring must be formulated taking into consideration applicability of the criteria across countries and subgroup heterogeneity. For economic-related inequality, we recommend forming subgroups as quintiles, and for urban/rural inequality we recommend a binary categorization. Inequality spans populations, thus appropriate approaches to monitoring should be based on comparisons between two subgroups (gap approach) or across multiple subgroups (whole spectrum approach). When measuring inequality absolute and relative measures should be reported together, along with disaggregated data; inequality should be reported alongside the national average. We recommend targets based on proportional reductions in absolute inequality across populations. Building capacity for health inequality monitoring is timely, relevant, and important. The development of high-quality health information systems, including data collection, analysis, interpretation, and reporting practices that are linked to review and evaluation cycles across health systems, will enable effective global and national health inequality monitoring. These actions will support equity-oriented progressive realization of UHC.

De la evidencia a la acción sobre los determinantes sociales de la salud mediante el instrumento urban heart en la región de Las Américas / From evidence to action on the social determinants of health through the urban heart instrument in the Americas region

Objetivo. Evaluar la experiencia de determinadas ciudades de la Región de las Américas mediante el empleod el instrumento de evaluación y respuesta en materia de equidad en salud en medios urbanos(Urban HEART), introducido por la Organización Mundial de la Salud en el 2010, y determinar suutilidad para apoyar las iniciativas de los gobiernospara incrementar la equidad en salud utilizando el enfoque de los determinantes sociales de la salud(DSS)...

Linking evidence to action on social determinants of health using Urban HEART in the Americas / De la evidencia a la acción sobre los determinantes sociales de la salud mediante el instrumento Urban HEART en la Región de las Américas

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the experience of select cities in the Americas using the Urban Health Equity Assessment and Response Tool (Urban HEART) launched by the World Health Organization in 2010 and to determine its utility in supporting government efforts to improve health equity using the social determinants of health (SDH) approach METHODS: The Urban HEART experience was evaluated in four cities from 2010-2013: Guarulhos (Brazil), Toronto (Canada), and Bogotá and Medellín (Colombia). Reports were submitted by Urban HEART teams in each city and supplemented by first-hand accounts of key informants. The analysis considered each city's networks and the resources it used to implement Urban HEART; the process by which each city identified equity gaps and prioritized interventions; and finally, the facilitators and barriers encountered, along with next steps RESULTS: In three cities, local governments spearheaded the process, while in the fourth (Toronto), academia initiated and led the process. All cities used Urban HEART as a platform to engage multiple stakeholders. Urban HEART's Matrix and Monitor were used to identify equity gaps within cities. While Bogotá and Medellín prioritized among existing interventions, Guarulhos adopted new interventions focused on deprived districts. Actions were taken on intermediate determinants, e.g., health systems access, and structural SDH, e.g., unemployment and human rights CONCLUSIONS: Urban HEART provides local governments with a simple and systematic method for assessing and responding to health inequity. Through the SDH approach, the tool has provided a platform for intersectoral action and community involvement. While some areas of guidance could be strengthened, Urban HEART is a useful tool for directing local action on health inequities, and should be scaled up within the Region of the Americas, building upon current experience.

OBJETIVO: Evaluar la experiencia de determinadas ciudades de la Región de las Américas mediante el empleo del instrumento de evaluación y respuesta en materia de equidad en salud en medios urbanos (Urban HEART), introducido por la Organización Mundial de la Salud en el 2010, y determinar su utilidad para apoyar las iniciativas de los gobiernos para incrementar la equidad en salud utilizando el enfoque de los determinantes sociales de la salud (DSS). MÉTODOS: Se evaluó la experiencia de Urban HEART en cuatro ciudades: Guarulhos (Brasil), Toronto (Canadá), y Bogotá y Medellín (Colombia). Los equipos de Urban HEART de cada ciudad presentaron informes y estos fueron complementados por las explicaciones directas de informantes clave. El análisis tuvo en cuenta las redes y los recursos de cada ciudad utilizados para implantar el Urban HEART, el proceso mediante el cual cada ciudad determinó las brechas en materia de equidad y las intervenciones prioritarias y, por último, las barreras y los factores favorecedores detectados, así como las medidas a adoptar RESULTADOS: En tres ciudades, los gobiernos locales lideraron el proceso, mientras que en la cuarta (Toronto), este fue iniciado y conducido por la comunidad académica. Todas las ciudades utilizaron Urban HEART como una plataforma para hacer participar a múltiples interesados directos. Se utilizaron las herramientas Matriz y Monitor de Urban HEART para determinar las brechas de equidad en las ciudades. Mientras Bogotá y Medellín establecieron prioridades entre las intervenciones ya existentes, Guarulhos adoptó nuevas intervenciones centradas en los distritos desprotegidos. Se adoptaron medidas en materia de determinantes intermedios, por ejemplo, el acceso a los sistemas de salud, y los DSS estructurales, tales como el desempleo y los derechos humanos CONCLUSIONES: El instrumento Urban HEART proporciona a los gobiernos locales un método sencillo y sistemático para evaluar y responder a la inequidad en salud. Mediante el enfoque de los DSS, esta herramienta ha proporcionado una plataforma para la acción intersectorial y la participación comunitaria. Aunque podrían fortalecerse algunos aspectos relacionados con la provisión de directrices, Urban HEART constituye una herramienta útil para dirigir la acción local sobre las inequidades en salud y debe extenderse a toda la Región de las Américas aprovechando la experiencia actual.

Extended spectrum β--lactamases in Escherichia coli & Klebsiella pneumoniae & associated risk factors.

Background & objectives: Extended spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs) have emerged as a major threat worldwide with limited treatment options. The genotypes of ESBL producing strains largely remain unknown in India; hence the present study was aimed to determine the occurrence of ESBLs in Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae, their molecular types and associated risk factors in a tertiary care hospital. Methods: Total 200 consecutive clinical isolates of E. coli (n=143) and K. pneumoniae (n=57) collected between February and July 2006 at Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, a tertiary care hospital in north India, were examined phenotypically for ESBL production. ESBL strains were further typed for the blaTEM/SHV/CTX-M genes by PCR using specifi c primers. The blaCTX-M cluster was identifi ed by restriction analysis and genotype by sequencing of PCR product. Resistance to other antimicrobial agents was also studied. Various risk factors associated with ESBL infections were analyzed by logistic regressions. Results: ESBLs were found in 63.6 per cent E. coli and 66.7 per cent K. pneumoniae isolates. Majority of the typeable isolates harboured two or more ESBL genes (57.3%). Overall blaCTX-M was the commonest genotype (85.4%) followed by blaTEM (54.9%) and blaSHV (32.9%) either alone or in combination. All CTX-M enzymes in E. coli and 87.5 per cent in K. pneumoniae belonged to the CTX-M-1 cluster. Sequencing was done for randomly selected 20 blaCTX-M PCR products and all were identifi ed as CTXM- 3. Resistance of ESBL isolates to other antibiotics was amikacin 14.7 per cent, gentamicin 66.7 per cent, trimethoprim/sulphamethoxazole 79.1 per cent and ciprofl oxacin 93.8 per cent. Prior antibiotic exposure, use of intravenous device and urinary catheter, renal insuffi ciency and ICU admission were associated with ESBL infection on univariate analysis. On multivariate, antibiotic exposure (P=0.001) and use of urinary catheter (P<0.001) were identififi ed as risk for ESBL infection. Interpretation & conclusions: Our study showed high ESBL occurrence with CTX-M as the emerging type in our hospital and CTX-M-3 being reported for the fi rst time in India. High co-resistance to other non-β-lactam antibiotics is a major challenge for management of ESBL infections.

Human cysticercosis and Indian scenario: a review.

Cysticercosis, caused by Taenia solium larva is a major public health problem,especially in the developing world and neurocysticercosis (NCC) is considered to be the most common parasitic infestation of the central nervous system. NCC is identified as the single most common cause of community acquired active epilepsy; 26.3% to 53.8% active epilepsy cases in the developing world including India and Latin America are due to NCC.It is also becoming more common in the developed world because of increased migration of people with the disease or Taenia solium carriers and frequent travel to the endemic countries. It is estimated that three quarters of the estimated 50 million people with active epilepsy live in the poor countries of the world. Recent Indian studies using neuroimaging techniques suggest that the disease burden in India surpasses many other developing countries. Hence it is important to know the epidemiology,pathogenesis and diagnostic criteria so as to assess the disease burden and adopt interventional strategies for its control.Literature search was done for this review with special emphasis on Indian studies to create awareness about the disease in India,since cysticercosis is preventable and potentially eradicable.