Validation of self-reported smoking status by measuring serum cotinine levels: An Indian perspective.

Background. Serum cotinine levels are a reliable marker of tobacco use. Few studies have validated questionnaires assessing smoking and exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) against serum levels. We undertook such a study in industrial workers in India. Methods. We chose 426 individuals by stratified random sampling from a database of 3397 individuals surveyed at New Delhi for the cardiovascular disease surveillance programme in a large industrial setting. Questionnaires assessing details of smoking practices and duration of exposure to ETS (if any) were administered. Cotinine levels were measured in the blood samples of these individuals. Results. The study population comprised 142 nonsmokers not exposed to ETS, 142 non-smokers exposed to ETS and 142 active smokers. Cotinine levels among nonsmokers not exposed to ETS were non-detectable; and for non-smokers exposed to ETS and active smokers, the median (interquartile range) levels were non-detectable (non-detectable to 46.1 ng/ml) and 336 ng/ml (204–500 ng/ml), respectively. The best combined sensitivity (91%) and specificity (87.2%) yielded a cotinine cut-off level of 40.35 ng/ml to differentiate active smokers from non-smokers not exposed to ETS and those exposed to ETS (area under the curve 0.902). The cut-off cotinine level was estimated at 10.95 ng/ml using a similar analysis (sensitivity 43%, specificity 82%; area under the curve 0.64) to distinguish non-smokers not exposed to ETS from those exposed to ETS. The misclassification rate was estimated at 19% and 57.1% among self-reported non-smokers not exposed to ETS and those exposed to ETS, respectively. Conclusions. Obtaining a history of tobacco use is an accurate method of detecting smokers in epidemiological studies whereas serum cotinine levels accurately differentiate smokers from non-smokers. However, a brief questionnaire assessing passive exposure to smoke has poor sensitivity in distinguishing non-smokers exposed to ETS from those not exposed to ETS.

Risk factors related to the development of diabetes in men working in a north Indian industry.

BACKGROUND: Epidemiological and lifestyle changes have been implicated in the high burden of diabetes in urban India. However, longitudinal data on the determinants for the development of diabetes in this population are not available. We investigated the determinants for the development of diabetes in workers in an Indian industrial organization. METHODS: Two cross-sectional surveys were done, using similar methodology (Survey 1 during 1995-98 [n=2548] and Survey 2 during 2002-03 [n=2800]) among all employees (age 20-59 years) of an industrial organization. A large majority of these were men (89.5% in Survey 1 and 92.8% in Survey 2). Men with no diabetes at baseline, who participated in both the surveys (n=942), constituted the study population. Development of new-onset diabetes was defined using history and fasting glucose concentrations > or =7 mmol/L. RESULTS: The mean (SD) age of the participants at baseline was 40 (2) years. Diabetes developed in 8% of the study population over 6.8 (1.7) years. Individuals who developed diabetes had significantly higher age, blood pressure, body mass index, waist circumference, fasting and post-prandial glucose, post-prandial insulin and fasting triglyceride levels at baseline. On multivariate regression analysis, only impaired glucose tolerance (OR 3.8, 95% CI: 2.1-6.8) and waist circumference (OR 1.09, 95% CI: 1.02-1.16) predicted the development of diabetes. Presence of the metabolic syndrome, as defined by the modified National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel (NCEP-ATP) III and WHO criteria, increased the odds (95% CI) of developing diabetes by 2.2 (1.3-3.6) and 4.5 (2.7-7.4) times, respectively. CONCLUSION: Impaired glucose tolerance, high waist circumference and the metabolic syndrome are powerful predictors for the development of diabetes among urban Indian men.