Maternal plasma transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) and newborn size: the Araraquara Cohort Study

Abstract Objective To investigate associations of maternal and cord blood cytokine patterns with newborn size and body composition. Methods This cross-sectional study involved 70 pregnant women and their healthy newborns selected from the "Araraquara Cohort Study". Newborn anthropometric measurements were recorded at birth. Body composition was evaluated by air displacement plethysmography. Maternal blood samples were collected from pregnant women between 30 and 36 weeks of gestation, and umbilical cord blood samples were collected immediately after placenta discharge. The concentrations of the cytokines were determined in plasma by ELISA. Multiple linear regression models were used to assess associations between maternal and cord blood cytokine concentrations and newborn anthropometry and body composition measurements. Results Maternal plasma TGF-β1 concentration was inversely associated with newborn weight (β= -43.0; p= 0.012), length (β= -0.16, p= 0.028), head circumference (β= -0.13, p= 0.004), ponderal index (β= -0.32, p= 0.011) and fat-free mass (β= -0.05, p= 0.005). However, the association persisted just for head circumference (β= -0.26; p= 0.030) and ponderal index (β= - 0.28; p= 0.028), after adjusting for pre-gestational BMI, gestational weight gain, gestational age, hours after delivery, newborn sex, smoking and alcohol consumption. Conclusions Maternal plasma TGF-β1 concentration may be involved in the regulation of newborn size, mainly head circumference and ponderal index. Further cohort studies are necessary to investigate the role of TGF-β1 in different trimesters of pregnancy and its effect during the early stages of fetal development.

Relação entre ganho de peso gestacional e composição corporal do concepto / The relationship between gestational weight gain and body composition of the fetus

Introdução: O aumento da adiposidade no ambiente intrauterino e alterações na composição corporal neonatal podem estar relacionados com obesidade e doenças crônicas no futuro. O ganho de peso gestacional (GPG) está associado à obesidade infantil, porém, estudos que avaliaram a relação entre o GPG materno e a composição corporal do concepto revelaram resultados inconsistentes, especialmente no que se refere à adiposidade fetal. Objetivo: Avaliar a relação entre o GPG materno e a adiposidade do feto e composição corporal neonatal. Métodos: Estudo epidemiológico prospectivo do tipo coorte, realizado em Araraquara e região, envolvendo gestantes atendidas em 34 Unidades de Saúde do SUS e na Maternidade Municipal "Gota de Leite". As gestantes foram acompanhadas em três períodos gestacionais (≤19, 20-29 e 30-39 semanas), durante o parto, e posteriormente até 72 horas após o parto. Foram avaliadas 1005 gestantes no 1º período gestacional, 1002 pares de gestantes e fetos no 2º período, 991 pares de gestantes e fetos no 3º período e 412 pares de mães e respectivos neonatos. A taxa de ganho de peso (TGP) foi calculada a partir da diferença entre o peso aferido no período gestacional específico menos o peso avaliado no período gestacional anterior, dividido pelo número de semanas correspondente a esse intervalo. O GPG total foi obtido pela diferença entre o peso aferido na data do parto e o peso pré-gestacional e classificado em insuficiente, adequado e excessivo, de acordo com a última diretriz do Institute of Medicine (IOM). A adiposidade fetal e a composição corporal do neonato foram avaliadas, respectivamente, por ultrassonografia e pletismografia por deslocamento de ar. Modelos de regressão linear múltipla foram construídos de acordo com um conjunto de ajustes mínimos suficientes sugeridos por gráficos acíclicos direcionados, considerando os seguintes fatores de confusão: idade, cor da pele/etnia, escolaridade, renda per capita, tabagismo, ingestão de alcool, paridade, diabetes mellitus, hipertensão arterial, altura, IMC pré-gestacional, sexo, idade gestacional ao nascer, horas de vida do neonato. O nível de significância em todos os testes foi α = 5%. Resultados: Durante o 2º período gestacional, verificou-se que para cada 0,1 kg/semana da TGP, houve um aumento de 0,222 mm (p=0,012), 0,462 cm2 (p <0,001), e 0,310 cm2 (p <0,001) no tecido adiposo subcutâneo do abdômen, coxa e braço do feto, respectivamente. Também houve associação entre a TGP materna no 3º período gestacional e deposição de gordura subcutânea no braço (ß=0,484 cm2; p=0,001) e na coxa (ß=0,480 cm2; p=0,049) do feto. Quanto à composição corporal neonatal, observou-se que para cada 1 kg do GPG total houve aumento de 0,004 Kg (p=0,002) na massa gorda, 0,084% (p=0,025) no percentual de massa gorda e 0,009 Kg (p <0,001) na massa livre de gordura do neonato. Crianças de mulheres com GPG total insuficiente apresentaram massa livre de gordura 0,104 kg (p=0,009) menor que os neonatos de mães com GPG total adequado. Conclusão: De acordo com nosso conhecimento, este é o primeiro estudo na literatura internacional que investigou a associação entre ganho de peso materno e adiposidade fetal e composição corporal neonatal. Os resultados mostram um impacto diferente da TGP materno sobre o acúmulo de gordura fetal, de acordo com o período gestacional investigado. Também houve associação positiva entre GPG total e massa gorda, percentual de massa gorda e massa livre de gordura do neonato. Mães com GPG total insuficiente tiveram neonatos com menor massa livre de gordura.

Introduction: The increase in adiposity in the intrauterine environment and changes in neonatal body composition may be related to obesity and chronic diseases in the future. Gestational weight gain (GWG) is associated with childhood obesity, however, studies that evaluated the relationship between the maternal GWG and the body composition of the fetus revealed inconsistent results, especially with regard to fetal adiposity. Objective: To evaluate the relationship between maternal GWG and adiposity of the fetus and body composition of the newborn. Methods: This is an epidemiological prospective cohort study, carried out in Araraquara and region, involving pregnant women attended at 34 Health Units from the Brazilian National Health Service - SUS and at the Municipal Maternity "Gota de Leite". The pregnant women were followed up in the respective gestational periods: ≤ 19, 20-29 and 30-39 weeks, during delivery, and later up to 72 hours after delivery. One thousand and five (1005) pregnant women were evaluated in the 1st period of pregnancy, 1002 pairs of pregnant women and fetuses in the 2nd period, 991 pairs of pregnant women and fetuses in the 3rd period, and 412 pairs of mothers and newborns. The rate of weight gain (RWG) was calculated based on the difference between the weight measured in the gestational period minus the weight assessed in the previous gestational period, divided by the number of weeks corresponding to that interval. GWG was obtained by the difference between the weight measured at the date of delivery and the pre-gestational weight, and classified as insufficient, adequate, and excessive, according to the last guidelines of the Institute of Medicine (IOM). The fetal adiposity and body composition of the newborn were evaluated, respectively, by ultrasound and plethysmography by air displacement. Multiple linear regression models were constructed considering a set of sufficient minimum adjustments suggested by directed acyclic graphs, considering the following confounders: age, skin color/ethnicity, schooling, per capita income, smoking, alcohol intake, parity, diabetes mellitus, arterial hypertension, height, pre-gestational BMI, sex, gestational age at birth, hours of life of the newborn. The level of significance in all tests was α = 5%. Results: During the 2nd gestational period, it was found that for each 0.1 kg/week of RWG, there was an increase of 0.222 mm (p = 0.012), 0.462 cm2 (p<0.001), and 0.310 cm2 (p<0.001) in subcutaneous adipose tissue in the abdomen, thight and arm of the fetus, respectively. There was also an association between the RWG in the 3rd gestational period and deposition of subcutaneous fat in the arm (ß=0.484 cm2; p=0.001) and thigh (ß=0.480 cm2; p=0.049) of the fetus. Concerning the newborn's body composition, it was observed that for each 1 kg of total GWG there was an increase of 0.004 Kg (p=0.002) in the fat mass, 0,084% (p=0.025) in the percentage of fat mass, and 0.009 Kg (p<0.001) in the fat-free mass of the newborn. Considering the guidelines of the IOM, neonates of mothers who had an insufficient total GWG had a fat-free mass of 0.104 kg (p=0.009) less than those born to women with adequate total GWG. Conclusion: As far as we know, this is the first study in the international literature that investigated the association between maternal weight gain in three different periods of gestation and fetal adiposity and newborn adiposity. The results show a different impact of the maternal RWG on the accumulation of fetal fat, according to the gestational period investigated. There was also a positive association between total GWG and mass fat, percentage of fat mass, and fat-free mass of the fetus, regardless of pre-gestational BMI. Women with insufficient total GWG had neonates with lower fat-free mass.

Anaemia among children living in land reform colonization projects in the Northeast region of Brazil: a population-based cross-sectional study / Anemia en niños que viven en proyectos de colonización de reforma agraria en el nordeste de Brasil: un estudio transversal basado en la población

This study evaluated the prevalence of anaemia and its social determinants among Brazilian children from rural settlements of the land reform colonization projects of Teresina city, in Northeast, Brazil. This is a population-based cross-sectional study involving 131 children younger than 5 years. Anaemia was diagnosed by haemoglobin measurements using an automated haematology analyser. The prevalence of anaemia was 29%. Multiple Poisson regression showed that anemia prevalence decreased by 39% for each year of the child's age (aPR= 0.61; 95% CI= 0.50 - 0.74), 14% for each year of maternal education (aPR= 0.86; 95% CI= 0.79 - 0.94) and 6% for each year of maternal age (aPR= 0.94; 95% CI= 0.89 - 1.00). In addition, children living in clay or in unfinished masonry houses had a higher prevalence of anemia than those living in finished masonry houses (aPR= 2.73; 95% CI= 1.50 - 4.97). Anaemia is a moderate public health problem in rural land reform settlements in Teresina and is probably a health issue in other land reform colonization projects in Brazil and worldwide. Strategies that promote the economic and social development of this population need to be implemented, as well as strengthening the implementation of the National Iron Supplementation Program (Programa Nacional de Suplementação de Ferro).

Este estudio evaluó la prevalencia de la anemia y sus determinantes sociales en niños brasileños de los asentamientos rurales de los proyectos de colonización de la reforma agraria de la ciudad de Teresina, nordeste de Brasil. Este es un estudio transversal basado en la población de 131 niños menores de 5 años. La anemia fue diagnosticada mediante mediciones de hemoglobina usando un analizador de hematología automatizado. La prevalencia de anemia fue del 29%. En un modelo múltiple, la prevalencia de anemia disminuyó 39% por cada año de edad infantil (aPR = 0.61; IC 95% = 0.50 - 0.74), 14% por cada año de educación materna (aPR = 0.86; IC 95% = 0.79 - 0.94) y 6% por cada año de edad materna (aPR = 0,94; IC del 95% = 0,89 a 1,00). Además, los niños residentes en casas de de adobe o mampostería sin terminar presentaron una mayor prevalencia que los que viven en casas de mampostería terminada (aPR = 2.73; IC 95% = 1.50 - 4.97). La anemia es un problema de salud pública moderado en los asentamientos de reforma agraria en Teresina y es probablemente un problema de salud en otros proyectos de colonización de la reforma agraria en Brasil y en todo el mundo. Se deben implementar estrategias que promuevan el desarrollo económico y social de esta población, así como fortalecer la implementación del Programa Nacional de Suplementación de Hierro (Programa Nacional de Suplementação de Ferro).

The relationship between serum retinol concentrations and subclinical infection in rural Brazilian children / Relação entre as concentrações séricas de retinol e a infecção subclínica em crianças rurais brasileiras

ABSTRACT Objective To evaluate the relationship between serum retinol concentrations and subclinical infection in children from rural settlements. Methods A cross-sectional population-based study was carried out in nine rural settlements in the northeastern region of Brazil, involving 118 children aged 6 to 59 months. The relationship between serum retinol and C-Reactive Protein levels, an important marker of infectious and inflammatory processes, was investigated by multiple linear regression, controlling for demographic, socioeconomic and nutritional variables. Serum retinol and C-Reactive Protein were measured, respectively, by High Performance Liquid Chromatography and immunoturbidimetric assay in automated equipment. Results Vitamin A deficiency (retinol <0.70μmol/L) was identified in 9.3% of the children. C-Reactive Protein was the only predictor of retinol concentrations in the final regression model, causing a 0.728μmol/L reduction in retinol concentrations in the studied children (p=0.008). Conclusion Vitamin A deficiency is a problem of mild/moderate severity and measures to control infectious diseases in this population are fundamental to prevent and/or combat this problem.

RESUMO Objetivo Esta pesquisa teve por objetivo avaliar a relação entre concentrações séricas de retinol e infecção subclínica, em crianças de assentamentos rurais. Métodos Trata-se de estudo transversal, de base populacional, realizado em nove assentamentos rurais na região nordeste do Brasil, envolvendo 118 crianças de 6 a 59 meses de idade. A relação entre retinol sérico e níveis de proteína C-reativa, importante marcador de processos infecciosos e inflamatórios, foi investigada por análise de regressão linear múltipla, controlando-se variáveis demográficas, socioeconômicas e nutricionais. O retinol sérico e a proteína C-reativa foram medidos, respectivamente, por Cromatografia Líquida de Alta Performance e ensaio imunoturbidimétrico em equipamento automatizado. Resultados A deficiência de vitamina A (retinol <0,70μmll/L) foi identificada em 9,3% das crianças. A proteína C-reativa foi o único preditor de concentrações de retinol no modelo de regressão final, causando uma redução de 0,728μmol/L nas concentrações de retinol nas crianças estudadas (p=0,008). Conclusão A pesquisa concluiu que a deficiência de vitamina A é um problema de severidade leve/moderada, sendo fundamental a adoção de medidas para controlar doenças infecciosas nessa população, bem como para prevenir e/ou combater o problema.