COVID-19: Time for a clinical classification?

COVID-19 pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 virus has been around for 2 years causing significant health-care catastrophes in most parts of the world. The understanding of COVID-19 continues to expand, with multiple newer developments such as the presence of asymptomatic cases, feco-oral transmission, and endothelial dysfunction. The existing classification was developed before this current understanding. With the availability of recent literature evidences, we have attempted a classification encompassing pathogenesis and clinical features for better understanding of the disease process. The pathogenesis of COVID-19 continues to evolve. The spiked protein of the SARS-CoV-2 virus binds to ACE2 receptors causes direct cytopathic damage and hyperinflammatory injury. In addition to alveolar cells, ACE2 is also distributed in gastrointestinal tract and vascular endothelium. ACE2–SARS-CoV-2 interaction engulfs the receptors leading to depletion. Accumulation of Ang2 via AT1 receptor (AT1R) binding causes upregulation of macrophage activity leading to pro-inflammatory cytokine release. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) has been attributed to cause hyperinflammatory syndrome in COVID-19. In addition, it also causes severe widespread endothelial injury through soluble IL-6 receptors. Thrombotic complications occur following the cleavage and activation of von Willebrand factor. Based on the above understanding, clinical features, organ involvement, risk stratification, and disease severity, we have classified COVID-19 patients into asymptomatic, pulmonary, GI, and systemic COVID-19 (S-COVID-19). Studies show that the infectivity and prognosis are different and distinct amongst these groups. Systemic-COVID-19 patients are more likely to be critically ill with multi-organ dysfunction and thrombo-embolic complications.

Extravasation injuries / Lesiones por extravasación

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the time and type of treatment following extravasation from intravenous infusion and the sequelae of the injuries. METHOD: The charts of 12 patients who were referred to the Plastic and Orthopaedic Services at the University Hospital of the West Indies were reviewed. The study period was between May 2003 and January 2007. Data were collected on age, gender, site of extravasation, extravasated agent, treatment of the extravasation, necrosis interval, duration of hospital stay for treatment of injury and whether the intravenous line was resited and at what site in relation to the injury. RESULTS: The age of patients ranged from three days to 67 years. The female-to-male ratio was 2 : 1. In five patients, the intravenous infusion was discontinued immediately after the swelling was noticed. In two patients, the intravenous infusion was stopped after seven hours and in five patients it was discontinued within 12 to 22 hours. The necrosis interval ranged from 12 hours to three weeks. Immediate treatment following extravasation and discontinuation of the infusion included limb elevation in three patients and application of cold compresses in one patient. Eleven patients developed skin necrosis of varying severities. There was no skin necrosis in one patient. Ten patients spent an average of 31 extra days in hospital for treatment of the extravasation injury. Two patients were treated in an out-patient clinic. CONCLUSIONS: Extravenous leaks can cause severe tissue injuries. Morbidity is increased by delay in recognition and treatment of the extravasation. A protocol for the treatment of extravasation is recommended.

OBJETIVOS: Evaluar el tiempo y tipo de tratamiento tras la extravasación de una perfusión intravenosa y las secuelas de las lesiones. MÉTODO: Se revisaron las historias clínicas de 12 pacientes que fueron remitidos a los Servicios de Ortopedia y Cirugía Plástica del Hospital Universitario de West Indies. El periodo del estudio tuvo lugar entre mayo de 2003 y enero de 2007. Los datos fueron recopilados en relación con edad, género, lugar de la extravasación, agente extravasado, tratamiento de la extravasación, duración del intervalo de necrosis, duración de la permanencia en el hospital para el tratamiento de la lesión, y reubicación o no de la línea intravenosa, así como la especificación de su lugar en relación con la lesión. RESULTADOS: La edad de los pacientes fluctuó de tres días a 67 años. La proporción hembra/varón fue de 2:1. En cada uno de los casos, una sustancia capaz de causar la necrosis se había infiltrado por goteo en el tejido subcutáneo a partir de una perfusión intravenosa. En cinco pacientes, la perfusión intravenosa fue discontinuada inmediatamente después de que se observó la inflamación. En dos pacientes, la perfusión intravenosa fue detenida después de siete horas y en cinco pacientes fue discontinuada dentro de 12 a 22 horas. El rango de intervalo de la necrosis fue de 12 horas a tres semanas. El tratamiento inmediato tras la extravasación y el cese de la perfusión incluyeron la elevación de miembros en tres pacientes y la aplicación de compresas frías en un paciente. Once pacientes desarrollaron necrosis cutánea de diversos grados de severidad. No hubo necrosis cutánea alguna en un paciente. Diez pacientes pasaron un promedio de 31 días extras en el hospital para el tratamiento de la lesión de la extravasación. Dos pacientes fueron tratados en una clínica ambulatoria. CONCLUSIONES: El goteo extravenoso puede causar lesiones severas del tejido. La morbosidad aumenta con la demora en el reconocimiento y tratamiento de la extravasación. Se recomienda un protocolo para el tratamiento de la extravasación.

Management of hepatic cysts by percutaneous drainage and instillation of tetracycline hydrochloride

This paper reports two cases of benign hepatic cysts successfully treated by the instillation of tetracycline hydrochloride. The patients presented with solitary large symptomatic hepatic cysts and underwent ultrasound guided needle aspiration followed by the instillation of tetracycline hydrochloride. The cyst size diminished without complication and the patients have remained symptom free. We review the treatment of this uncommon entity and propose that injection of tetracycline hydrochloride is an effective nonoperative treatment of symptomatic solitary hepatic cysts.