ABSTRACT
Comparative analysis of injury and illness prevalence in elite and amateur athletes provides the basis for the development of tailored prevention programs. The authors analyzed the differences in frequency and characteristics of injuries and illnesses which occurred in elite and amateur athletes during the 2019 Gwangju Federation Internationale de Natation (FINA) and Masters World Championships. The 2019 FINA World Championships hosted 3095 athletes in the disciplines of swimming, diving, high diving, artistic swimming, water polo, and open water swimming. While the 2019 Masters World Championships hosted 4032 athletes in swimming, diving, artistic swimming, water polo, and open water swimming. All medical records were electrically recorded in every venue as well as the central medical center located at the athlete’s village. More elite athletes visited clinics than amateur athletes during the events (15.0 vs 8.6%, p＜0.05) despite the ages of amateur athletes being higher than elite athletes (41.0±15.0 vs 22.4±5.6 years, p＜0.01). Elite athletes complained mainly of musculoskeletal problems (69%), while amateur athletes complained of both musculoskeletal (38%) and cardiovascular (8%) problems. The most frequent injury in elite athletes was due to overuse in the shoulder joints, while that of amateur athletes was traumatic injuries involving feet and hands. The most common illness was respiratory infection in both elite and amateur athletes, while cardiovascular events occured only in amateur athletes. As the risk of injury varies in elite and amateur athletes, tailored preventive measures should be prepared. Furthermore, preventive measures of cardiovascular events should focus on amateur sports events.
ABSTRACT
The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of ketamine, a dissociative anesthetics, on secretion of catecholamines (CA) secretion evoked by cholinergic stimulation from the perfused model of the isolated rat adrenal gland, and to establish its mechanism of action, and to compare ketamine effect with that of thiopental sodium, which is one of intravenous barbiturate anesthetics. Ketamine (30~300 micrometer), perfused into an adrenal vein for 60 min, dose- and time-dependently inhibited the CA secretory responses evoked by ACh (5.32 mM), high K+ (a direct membrane- depolarizer, 56 mM), DMPP (a selective neuronal nicotinic NN receptor agonist, 100 micrometer) and McN-A-343 (a selective muscarinic M1 receptor agonist, 100 micrometer). Also, in the presence of ketamine (100 micrometer), the CA secretory responses evoked by veratridine (a voltage-dependent Na+ channel activator, 100 micrometer), Bay-K-8644 (an L-type dihydropyridine Ca2+ channel activator, 10 micrometer), and cyclopiazonic acid (a cytoplasmic Ca2+-ATPase inhibitor, 10 micrometer) were significantly reduced, respectively. Interestingly, thiopental sodium (100 micrometer) also caused the inhibitory effects on the CA secretory responses evoked by ACh, high K+, DMPP, McN-A-343, veratridine, Bay-K-8644, and cyclopiazonic acid. Collectively, these experimental results demonstrate that ketamine inhibits the CA secretion evoked by stimulation of cholinergic (both nicotinic and muscarinic) receptors and the membrane depolarization from the isolated perfused rat adrenal gland. It seems likely that the inhibitory effect of ketamine is mediated by blocking the influx of both Ca2+ and Na+ through voltage-dependent Ca2+ and Na+ channels into the rat adrenal medullary chromaffin cells as well as by inhibiting Ca2+ release from the cytoplasmic calcium store, which are relevant to the blockade of cholinergic receptors. It is also thought that, on the basis of concentrations, ketamine causes similar inhibitory effect with thiopental in the CA secretion from the perfused rat adrenal medulla.