ABSTRACT
Hemospermia refers to the macroscopic presence of blood in semen, which may be associated with male genital tract, lower urinary tract and systemic diseases. Hemospermia is prevalent in young males. It is mostly a benign lesion and self-limited symptom, requiring only basic investigations and simple management. But in a few patients, it may be the primary symptom of urogenital malignancy. Therefore in patients older than 40 years, or in those with persistent or recurrent hemospermia, further investigation should be conducted by imaging and endoscopic examinations to make definite etiological diagnosis and give corresponding treatment. This article reviews the etiology, initial diagnostic workup, imaging techniques and endoscopic examination of hemospermia, and summeries its management.
Subject(s)
Humans , Male , Hemospermia , Diagnosis , TherapeuticsABSTRACT
Testicular microlithiasis (TM) refers to the calcium deposits within the seminiferous tubules. Owing to the wide use of scrotal ultrasonography, more cases of TM have been diagnosed clinically. TM can be associated with many conditions, including cryptorchidism, infertility, varicocele, testicular torsion, Klinefelter's syndrome, intratubular germ cell neoplasia (IGCN) and testicular germ cell tumor (TGCT), and its frequent association with IGCN, TGCT and infertility is the particular concern of urologists and andrologists. The etiology of TM is not yet certain. Its biological meaning and clinical significance have not been well defined. Currently, there are controversies on the correlation of TM with IGCN, TGCT and infertility. This article reviews the definition, prevalence, etiology, and histopathology of TM, and summarized its association with IGCN, TGCT, and male infertility as well as the management of the disease.