Estrategias de regulación emocional de niños/as en el aprendizaje de la escritura en situación de clase y de entrevista / Strategies for emotional regulation of children in learning to write in class and interview situations

Resumen El presente estudio se propone contribuir al campo de la autorregulación temprana desde un enfoque ecológico y situado y, al mismo tiempo, al campo del aprendizaje de la escritura. Sus objetivos son: (1) identificar eventos emocionalmente desafiantes en el aprendizaje de la escritura de niños/as; (2) indagar el despliegue de sus estrategias de regulación emocional; y (3) analizar la variación de dichas estrategias en situación de clase y de entrevista. Participaron 10 niños/as de primer grado de 6 y 7 años de la ciudad de San Carlos de Bariloche (Argentina). Se realizaron observaciones de clases de Lengua focalizadas en escritura y entrevistas individuales. Las entrevistas se originaron en videos-elicitación cortos de niños/as actuando en eventos emocionalmente desafiantes en momentos de aprendizaje de la escritura: la percatación de una brecha entre el saber/poder y las demandas de una tarea, la exposición social y el entorno distractor. Se identificaron siete eventos emocionalmente desafiantes en total, sumándose cuatro a los propuestos en los videos-elicitación: la adecuación a normas externas, la corrección, la dificultad con el material y la equivocación. Asimismo, se documentó un amplio repertorio de estrategias de regulación emocional. Las más frecuentes fueron la modificación de la situación social, la comunicación y la expresión. Las observaciones permitieron hallar la modificación de la situación física, el control y el habla privada. En las entrevistas se pudo registrar la actividad alternativa, la respiración, la comunicación y la revaluación cognitiva. Se concluyó que la complementación de técnicas resulta promisoria para el estudio de la regulación emocional en el aprendizaje de la escritura.

Abstract Learning to write involves the challenge to understand and regulate one's own emotions in situation, such as frustration, anxiety and different moods. In recent years, the study of emotion regulation in children through different methodological tools, such as interviews, questionnaires or observations, has increased. However, to date there are few studies that complement these techniques. The present study seeks to contribute to early emotion regulation in learning to write from a sociocultural, ecological and situated approach, through the combination of interviews and class observations. The aims are to: (1) identify emotionally challenging events in children's learning to write; (2) describe the deployment of their strategies of emotion regulation; and (3) analyze the variation of these strategies in class and interview situations. Participants were 10 first graders from a school located in the urban area at San Carlos de Bariloche (Argentina). The school was selected because communication and regulation of emotions is part of the educational project. Observations of language classes and individual interviews were conducted over Zoom in the COVID-19 pandemic context. Ten observations focused on the class interaction between the teacher and children in learning to write situations were analyzed. The individual interview is based on video-elicitation technique. Three videos were designated ad hoc. Each video elicited emotionally challenging events in learning to write: (1) the awareness of a gap between knowledge/power and the demands of a task (child represented difficulties in writing and erasing, showing emotional affectation); (2) social exposure (child was reading alone and an adult asked her about what she was reading, after which the girl looked down and pursed her lips); and (3) the distracting environment (two girls were chatting and making noise as two boys were writing in their notebooks). Beyond the three emotionally challenging events presented in the video-elicitation, another four were found: the adaptation to external norms, the revision of the own text, the difficulty with the material, and the acknowledge the own mistakes. Additionally, children deployed a wide repertoire of strategies according to the emotion regulation model of Gross (2015) and the specific literature. Overall, the most frequent strategies were the modification of the situation in a social way, communication and expression. In the observations, modification of the situation in physical form, control and private speech were found. In the interviews, the alternative activity, breathing, communication and cognitive reappraisal were observed. Finally, it was concluded that the complementation of research methods, class observations and interviews, is promising for the study of children's emotion regulation in learning to write.

La reeducación de las disgrafías: perspectivas neuropsicológica y psicolingüística / The Reeducation of Dysgraphia: Neuropsychological and Psycholinguistic Perspectives / A reeducação das disgrafias: perspectivas neuropsicológica e psicolingüística

Objetivo. Esta investigación tuvo como objetivo efectuar una revisión actualizada de los modelos neuropsicológicos y psicolingüísticos de la intervención en las dificultades de la escritura. Método. Se partió de una revisión y un estudio teórico de documentos especializados, utilizando diversos descriptores específicos (disgrafía-neuropsicología, disgrafía-psicolingüística, reeducación/educación-disgrafía) de la Web of Science. Resultados. De modo habitual, la literatura especializada plantea que la intervención neuropsicológica y psicolingüística debe ser integral, en el sentido de centrarse en los procesos tanto generales como específicos que subyacen a la escritura de cada niño. De la misma forma, se identifica que la adaptación del modelo de trabajo a las necesidades reales del alumno en cuanto a su grafismo, calidad del escrito y dificultades concretas permite la optimización del resultado. Conclusión. Resulta necesario considerar que una adecuada intervención en la escritura no debe ser genérica, sino individualizada y específica. De ahí que la adopción de un modelo de trabajo integral le aporte beneficios al niño, dado que se centra en los factores que determinan su acto gráfico, su calidad de la composición y la corrección de sus errores concretos.

Objective. This study aimed to carry out an updated review of neuropsychological and psycholinguistic models in the intervention of writers who demonstrate poor acquisition of writing skills. Method. We have started a comprehensive review and theoretical study of specialized documents, using various specific descriptors (dysgraphia - neuropsychology, dysgraphia - psycholinguistic, reeducation / education - dysgraphia) in the Web of Science. Results. Regularly, the literature suggests that neuropsychological and psycholinguistic intervention must be comprehensive, in the sense of focus on both general and specific processes that underlie each child's writing. The adaptation of the working model to the real needs of the student in terms of graphics, quality of writing and their particular difficulties allows the optimization of the result. Conclusion. We need to consider that a good intervention in writing can't be generic, but must be individualized and specific. The adoption of a model of integrated work brings benefits to the child, since it focuses on the factors that determine their graphic act, the quality of the composition, and correction of their specific errors.

Escopo. Esta pesquisa teve como objetivo efetuar uma revisão atualizada dos modelos neuropsicológicos e psicolinguísticos da intervenção nas dificuldades da escritura. Metodologia. Tem se partido de uma completa revisão e estudo teórico de documentos especializados, utilizando diversos descritores específicos (disgrafia-neuropsicologia, disgrafia-psicolinguística, reeducação/educação-disgrafia) na Web of Science. Resultados. De maneira habitual, a literatura especializada argumenta que a intervenção neuropsicológica e psicolinguística deve ser integral, no sentido de se enfocar nos processos tanto gerais como específicos que são subjacentes à escritura de cada criança. Do mesmo jeito, é identificado que a adaptação do modelo de trabalho às necessidades reais do aluno em quanto ao seu grafismo, qualidade do escrito e as suas dificuldades concretas permitem a optimização do resultado. Conclusão. É necessário considerar que uma boa intervenção na escritura não pode ser genérica, ao contrário, deve ser individualizada e específica. Assim, centra-se nos fatores que determinam seu ato gráfico, sua qualidade da composição e a correção de seus erros concretos.

El desarrollo de la escritura de palabras en español: Interacción entre el conocimiento fonológico y ortográfico / Spelling development in Spanish: Interaction between phonological and orthographic knowledge

El presente trabajo se propone ampliar los conocimientos acerca de las estrategias léxicas y fonológicas que utilizan los niños en la tarea de escritura de palabras en español, durante los primeros años de escolaridad. Para ello se analizó en dos experimentos, cómo incidían las variables de complejidad, extensión y frecuencia, así como el conocimiento ortográfico en el aprendizaje temprano de la escritura. En el primer experimento la variable ortográfica no fue considerada de manera específica, por lo que se diseñó y aplicó un segundo experimento. En el experimento dos se evaluó la incidencia del conocimiento léxico al comparar la adquisición de correspondencias consistentes e inconsistentes, dependientes e independientes del contexto. Las pruebas de escritura de palabras se aplicaron al finalizar el primer año y segundo año de Enseñanza General Básica (EGB). En los resultados, a finales de primer año, no se encontró un efecto de frecuencia, pero se observó, en cambio, una fuerte incidencia de la complejidad y la longitud en el desempeño de los niños, lo que puso de manifiesto que los mecanismos fonológicos son fundamentales en la primera etapa de aprendizaje de la escritura. Asimismo, se advirtió que los mecanismos léxicos son relativamente tardíos y se adquieren gradualmente. Sólo a finales de segundo año se encontró una interacción entre los mecanismos fonológicos y léxicos. Las implicancias pedagógicas del estudio fueron también consideradas.

This study analyzed the acquisition of word spelling strategies in Spanish-speaking children, during the first two years of elementary education. The cognitive word spelling models, initially developed for English, describe different stages in the acquisition spelling process. In the first stage, children write by memory, reproducing visual cues. At a second stage, children analyze the phonological structure of the word. Finally, in an orthographic stage, children can write words, using lexical information, without phonological mediation (Frith, 1984, 1985; Marsh, Friedman, Welch & Desberg, 1980). Even when the stages theory was discussed, these first studies allowed the identification of early lexical strategies and phonological mechanisms implied in the English word spelling processes. However, English is a language with a deep orthography, and the phonological strategy is a necessary mechanism but it is not enough to spell words properly. On the contrary, the Spanish orthographic system is shallow, and the phonemes-graphemes correspondences are very regular. Consequently, the spelling strategies could be different in these two languages, and the models developed for English would partially explain the orthographic learning process in transparent languages. This work aims to contribute to the knowledge on early spelling word strategies in Spanish. In two experiments, first and second grade children were given spelling tests designed to explore their phonological and orthographic knowledge. In the first experiment, the incidence of word complexity, length and frequency on spelling performance was explored. However, there was a possibility that, if children performed better in frequent words spelling, in relation to less frequent, they were resorting to their lexical knowledge. In this case, children were using an orthographic-lexical strategy. On the other hand, the possibility of writing complex and long words is associated to the phonological awareness level and correspondence knowledge. If children were able to easily write frequent and non frequent short and simple words, but had difficulties in writing long and complex words, they were possibly analyzing the sounds of the words and thus activating the corresponding letters. If the word was long or complex and the phonological skills were not well developed, children would have difficulties in writing them; one such problem, for example, would be in omitting letters. In this case, complexity and length variables that show the use of an analytic strategy would be influencing the performance. In the first experiment, the orthographic variable was not considered specifically, so a second experiment was designed. The second experiment evaluated orthographic knowledge, considering the orthographic characteristics of the words. The acquisition of the consistent and inconsistent correspondences was compared. The consistent correspondences could be solved using transcription rules, while inconsistent correspondences could be written only through lexical knowledge. Furthermore, consistent correspondences could be independent or dependent from context. In the first case, we refer to phonemes that are always represented with the same letter. In the other case, transcription depends on the syllabic context. Tests were applied at the end of the first and the second year of primary education. Results of the first experiment showed that, at the end of the first year, there was no frequency effect but the variables of complexity and length affected the children's performance. At the end of the second year, a frequency effect and a significant interaction between complexity and frequency were found. In the second experiment, a significant consistence effect was observed, but there was no frequency effect. These results indicate that phonological strategies are fundamental in the beginning of spelling acquisition. On the contrary, lexical mechanisms appear later and they are acquired gradually. Indeed, at the end of the first grade, frequency only affected performance of context dependent correspondences, but not independent. Likewise, interaction between phonological and lexical strategies was found only at the end of the second year. Pedagogical implications were also considered.