Caesarean Section Delivery in India: A Comparative Assessment of Geographical Variability Using Nationally Representative Survey Factsheet Data

Background: In line with global trends, India has witnessed a sharp rise in C-section (CS) deliveries, especial-ly in the private sector. Methodology: Study attempts to explore change in CS delivery in India at national, regional and State/UT lev-els. We have used factsheet data from the most recent nationally representative survey data i.e., NFHS to ex-amine changes in private and public healthcare facilities, and to determine a difference in rural and urban in CS deliveries. Results: The CS rate has increased from 17.2% to 21.5% in 2019-21. CS was more than twice (40.9%) amongst the private healthcare facilities during the fourth round of NFHS which has shown a considerable in-crease during the fifth round of NFHS (47.4%). There is equal distribution (12.8% during 2015-16 to 17.6% in 2019-21 in rural areas v/s 28.2% during 2015-16 to 32.3% in 2019-21in urban areas) of CS deliveries amongst the rural and urban areas to the total deliveries. Conclusion: Study found that with every one in five deliveries being caesarean, the figure is significantly high as per the recommended cut off by WHO. Thus, it is essential to explore factors regarding emergency or elec-tive caesarean section and to understand if the health facilities are following the recommended protocols for performing CS deliveries.

Uso de eritromicina como procinético para cesárea con cuatro horas de ayuno / Use of erythromycin as a prokinetic for cesarean section with four hours of fasting

Resumen: El ayuno preoperatorio es fundamental como requisito previo a la mayoría de cirugías tanto para las electivas como para las urgencias relativas. Sin embargo, no siempre se cumplen las condiciones idóneas al momento de abordar a un paciente y la falta de ayuno es una condición que puede poner en riesgo la vida del mismo, siendo un factor de riesgo mayúsculo para la broncoaspiración del contenido gástrico. Hasta el momento se cuenta con un reducido arsenal farmacológico de medicamentos que con distinta función e intensidad aceleran el vaciamiento gástrico; la eritromicina no se encuentra en esta lista de manera oficial. A pesar de que ya ha sido utilizada ampliamente con este fin en el ámbito de los procedimientos endoscópicos, no existen aún suficientes reportes en los que se haya puesto a prueba su eficacia procinética en cirugía de urgencia, específicamente una cesárea. Este artículo, además de ofrecer un breve sumario de dicho macrólido, presenta el caso de una paciente embarazada con ingesta alimenticia reciente, en la cual se obtuvieron las condiciones idóneas para cirugía tan sólo cuatro horas después de la administración de la eritromicina.

Abstract: Preoperative fasting is essential as a prerequisite for most surgeries, either elective procedures or relative emergencies. However, the ideal conditions for surgery are not always fulfilled at the time of approaching a patient, and the lack of fasting is a factor that could endanger patient's life, being a major risk factor for bronchoaspiration of gastric content. Until now there is a small pharmacological list of medications that with different function and intensity accelerate gastric emptying, erythromycin is not officially on this list. Despite the fact that it has already been widely used for this purpose in the field of endoscopic procedures, there are not enough reports about its efficacy in emergency surgery, specifically C-section. This article, in addition to offering a brief summary of this macrolide, presents a case in which after erythromycin administration to a pregnant patient with a recent food intake, the ideal conditions for surgery were obtained only four hours later.

Role Of Diagnostic Imaging And Surgical Outcomes In Abnormal Placental Invasion Spectrum Associated With Prior Caesarian Delivery Patients: A Prospective Case Series From Western India

Background:The aim of our study was to explore the demographics, surgical outcomes and performance of diagnostic imaging modalities namely Ultrasound and Magnetic Resonance Imaging for predicting abnormal placental invasion spectrum in females with history of past caesarian sections.Materials & Methods:We conducted a prospective study from February 2017 till December 2019 at a tertiary referral public hospital in western India. During this time-period we had 26 females satisfying our study criteria. They were subjected to imaging diagnostics to confirm abnormal placental invasiondisorder in their present pregnancy. The imaging findings were compared with the final findings at the time of delivery and pathological examinations of placental specimens.Results:More than two thirds of our study patients were young and belonged to the age group of twenties (mean age 29.5 +/-4.64). Half of them were 3rdgravidas and 77 % (> 3/4 th) of them were diagnosed in their second trimester of pregnancy. Majority of them had history of single past caesarian delivery and the commonest indication for performing it was placenta praevia. Both Ultrasound and MRI were found to be fairly accurate in diagnosing abnormal placental invasion with good sensitivities. Overall, in our series MRI scored an upperhand as a diagnostic imaging modality in posteriorly implanted placentas and cases with ambiguous USG findings.Conclusion:Both diagnostic imaging modalities USG and MRI can predict abnormal placental invasion spectrum with high sensitivity in the antenatal period. These imaging modalities can have a complimentary role, although MRI was found to be superior over USG in our case series with inconclusive findings.

Presencia de infección de sitio quirúrgico en procedimientos gineco-obstétricos en un hospital de II nivel de atención, Honduras 2017-2018 / Presence of surgical site infection in obstetric-gynecological procedures in a level II care hospital, Honduras 2017-2018

OBJETIVO: Identificar la presencia de infección de sitio quirúrgico y factores de riesgo en pacientes sometidas a cirugías Gineco-Obstétricas de forma programada o de urgencia en un hospital de II nivel de atención en Honduras. METODOLOGÍA: Estudio observacional, descriptivo, retrospectivo; recopilando 226 fichas del registro de infección de sitio quirúrgico recuperadas de los expedientes clínicos brindados por el servicio de estadística del Hospital Mario Catarino Rivas. Captando pacientes sometidas a cirugías Gineco-Obstétricas, durante el 2017 y 2018. RESULTADOS: 99 fichas cumplieron los criterios de inclusión, reportando una edad de 24 años [RIQ, 19,0 - 30,0], peso 82,0 kg [RIQ, 51,7 - 98,25], talla 154 cm [150,0 - 158,0] y el IMC de 25,8 ± 3,6 kg/m2. Un 9,1% presento antecedentes de inmunosupresión. 5,1% presento ISQ. El 55.6% de las cirugías se realizó el mismo día de ingreso del paciente. El tiempo entre la profilaxis antibiótica y el comienzo de la intervención quirúrgica es de 60 minutos [RIQ, 40,0 - 160,0]. La duración de los procedimientos quirúrgicos son de 45 minutos [RIQ, 35,0 - 55,0]. Los microrganismos aislados en los cultivos fueron Cocos gram positivos (2/5), Enterococcus faecalis (1/5), Klebsiella pneumoniae (2/5). CONCLUSIÓN: La presencia de ISQ en cirugías Gineco-Obstétricas del HMCR es del 5.1%, identificando los siguientes factores de riesgo: edad extrema, obesidad, diabetes mellitus, estado inmunitario (VIH), profilaxis antibiótica (temprana); por último, la técnica y el tiempo quirúrgico.

OBJECTIVE: To identify the presence of surgical site infection and risk factors in patients undergoing Gynecological-Obstetric surgeries on a scheduled or emergency basis in a 2nd level of care hospital in Honduras. METHODOLOGY: Observational, descriptive, retrospective study, compiling 226 data sheets of the surgical site infection record recovered from the clinical records provided by the statistics service of the "Hospital Mario Catarino Rivas". Recruiting patients undergoing Gynecological-Obstetric surgeries, during 2017 and 2018. RESULTS: 99 tabs met the inclusion criteria, reporting an age of 24 [RIQ, 19.0 - 30.0], weight 82.0 kg [RIQ, 51.7 - 98.25], size 154 cm [150.0 - 158.0] and BMI of 25.8 ± 3.6 kg/m2. 9.1% have a history of immunosuppression. 5.1% present ISQ. 55.6% of surgeries were performed on the same day as the patient's admission. The time between antibiotic prophylaxis and the onset of surgery 60 minutes [RIQ, 40.0 - 160.0]. Duration of surgical procedures 45 minutes [RIQ, 35.0 - 55.0]. Isolated micro-morphisms in crops were Cocos gram positives (2/5), Enterococcus faecalis (1/5), Klebsiella pneumoniae (2/5). CONCLUSION: The presence of ISQ in HMCR Gynecological-Obstetric surgeries is 5.1%, identifying the following risk factors: extreme age, obesity, diabetes mellitus, immune status (HIV), early antibiotic prophylaxis; finally, technique and surgical time.

Edad gestacional, vía de parto y relación con el día y hora de nacimiento en dos instituciones del sector privado de salud / Gestational age, mode of delivery, and relation to the day and time of birth in two private health care facilities

Introducción. A nivel mundial, hay una tendencia ascendente en nacimientos prematuros y cesáreas. El objetivo fue describir edad gestacional (EG), vía de parto, distribución en días y horarios, y relación entre la vía de parto y el momento del nacimiento en dos instituciones privadas.Población y métodos. Estudio prospectivo, transversal, analítico.Resultados. Se incluyeron los 1500 nacidos vivos entre 9-2017 y 8-2018 (1465 embarazadas). El 99,4 % fueron embarazos controlados; el 66,8 % terminaron por cesárea. La causa fue cesárea previa en el 36,4 %, falta de progresión y descenso en el 18,9 % y elección materna en el 9,2 %. El peso promedio al nacer fue de 3232 g ± 561,1 g y la mediana de EG, 39 semanas (rango 38-40) por fecha de última menstruación. El 88,2 % fueron nacidos de término y, de los prematuros, el 76,1 % fueron pretérminos tardíos. Los nacidos de término temprano tuvieron mayor índice de cesáreas (p < 0,001). Los nacimientos por cesárea en días hábiles fueron 849/1201 (el 74,5 %) y, en los días de fin de semana y feriados, 173/299 (el 57,9 %, p < 0,001). Se encontró una relación estadísticamente significativa entre el horario de nacimiento y la realización de cesárea.Conclusiones. La mediana de EG fue 39 semanas. La cesárea fue la vía de nacimiento más frecuente. Los nacimientos se produjeron, predominantemente, de lunes a viernes entre las 8 y las 21 h. El 82,9 % de los nacimientos por cesárea ocurrieron en días de semana laborables

Introduction. There is a worldwide growing trend of preterm births and C-sections. Our objective was to describe gestational age (GA), mode of delivery, day and time distribution, and the relation between the mode of delivery and the time of birth in two private facilities.Population and methods. Prospective, cross-sectional, analytical study.Results. A total of 1500 live newborn infants were included between September 2017 and August 2018 (1465 pregnant women). Of these, 99.4 % had received antenatal care; 66.8 % of pregnancies ended via C-section. The reason was a previous C-section in 36.4 %, lack of progression and descent in 18.9 %, and maternal choice in 9.2 %. The average birth weight was 3232 g ± 561.1 g and the median GA was 39 weeks (range: 38-40) based on the date of the last menstrual period; 88.2 % were term births and, among preterm births, 76.1 % corresponded to late preterm babies. Early term births showed a higher rate of C-sections (p < 0.001). There were 849/1201 (74.5 %) C-sections on weekdays and 173/299 (57.9 %, p < 0.001) on weekends and holidays. A statistically significant relation was observed between the time of birth and the performance of a C-section.Conclusions. The median GA was 39 weeks. C-sections were the most common mode of delivery. Births occurred predominantly Mondays through Fridays between 8 a.m. and 9 p.m.; 82.9 % of C-sections took place on weekdays.

Changing trends of indication of caesarean section

Background: Percentage of previous C-section undergoing repeat section is close to 90%-92%, morbidity associated with repeat surgery is bringing an altogether new set of challenges for the upcoming future obstetricians. Object of this study is to highlight high incidence of repeat section required and also growing new indications of C-section due to advanced availability of investigative tools.Methods: Retrospective study of 500 patients who underwent C-section and their indications from April 2019 to July 2019 in Govt Doon Medical college, Dehra Dun.Results: Out of total 500 C-sections carried from April 2019 to July 2019, patients with previous section were found to undergo a repeat C-section in 95% of the cases. Another common indication being oligohydramnios followed by cephalopelvic disproportion and failed induction.Conclusions: After assessing the results it is hereby concluded that the commonest indication of C-section in present time is having a previous C-section, which alarms us to take careful judicious decision in performing primi C-sections in order to prevent patients into entering a vicious cycle of repeat surgeries.

Comparison of Epidural and Spinal Anesthesia in Patients Undergoing C-Section

Caesarean section is the most common surgical procedure performed in India. Although it has been generally agreed that spinal anesthesia (SA) is the preferred anesthetic technique for Cesarean delivery (CD), epidural anesthesia is advised when an epidural catheter is already in place. However, the efficacy of epidural anesthesia has been reported as inferior to that of SA in both elective and emergency situations. Aim of the study: To compare epidural and spinal anesthesia in patients undergoing C-section. Methods: The study was conducted in the Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics and Department of Anaesthesia, Narayan Medical College and Hospital, Jamuhar, Sasaram, Bihar, India. For the study, patients scheduled for caesarian section were included. Patients who had malfunctioning epidural catheter or improper epidural placement or complicated pregnancy were excluded from the study. A total of 30 patients were included. A written informed consent was obtained from all the participants in the study. To include the patients in the study, it was made sure that they had physical status of I-II; full-term, singleton pregnancy. On the day of surgery, patients were advised to fast for at least 8 hours before the surgery. For the anesthesia, patients were randomly grouped into two groups, Group I and Group II. Patients in Group I was anesthetized with epidural anesthesia and patients in Group II were anesthetized with spinal anesthesia. Results: In the present study, a total of 30 patients were selected. Patients were randomly grouped into Group I and Group 2. The mean age in group 1 was 36.32 years and in group 2 was 35.11 years. The mean height in group 1 was 160.21 cm and in group 2 was 159.21 cm. The mean body weight was 71.11 kg in group 1 and was 70.26 kg in group 2. The Apgar scores at 1 min in Group I was 9.22 and in group II was 8.89. The Apgar scores at 5 min in Group I was 9.56 and in group II was 9.32. VAS pain scores on postoperative day 1 in Group 1 was 2.89 and in Group 2 was 3.16. Conclusion: From the present study, this can be concluded that the effect of anesthesia on the newborn in both the groups was similar and had no different effects.

¿Qué sabemos de la importancia de la microbiota intestinal a lo largo de la vida? / What do we know about intestinal microbiota through the life cycle?

Over the last decades, modern lifestyle and environment have contributed to a shift in gut microbial colonization patterns and composition. Not only intestinal but also extraintestinal disorders have been proposed to be linked to changes in the gut microbiome. There is increasing evidence from clinical, epidemiologic and animal studies exploring associations between the dysbiotic microbiome and an increased risk of allergic, inflammatory, autoimmune, and metabolic diseases. The fetus is essentially sterile until the amniotic sac ruptures. After that, the maternal microbiota of the mouth, intestine, vagina and urinary tract contribute to the initial seeding of neonatal microbiota. Newborns are mainly inoculated at birth in the passage through the birth canal (vertical transmission). A number of exposure events occur afterwards (horizontal transmission), and by age 2, an infant's microbiota composition becomes indistinguishable from that of an adult. In mammalian evolution, the potential loss or change in vertical transmission of microbiota from mother to offspring could be compensated through horizontally transmitted microbiota (fecally contaminated drinking and bathing water, frequent physical contact, social crowding, and large families). However, the progressive loss of vertically transmitted microbiota without horizontal replacement represents a cumulative birth cohort phenomenon. Events that decrease microbiota diversity have been classically associated with risk of disease

En las últimas décadas, el estilo de vida y el ambiente moderno, han contribuido a un cambio en los patrones y la composición de colonización microbiana intestinal. No sólo se ha propuesto que los trastornos intestinales, sino también los extraintestinales, estarían relacionados con cambios en la microbioma intestinal. Cada vez hay más evidencias de estudios clínicos, epidemiológicos y en animales que exploran las asociaciones entre el microbioma disbiótico y un mayor riesgo de enfermedades alérgicas, inflamatorias, autoinmunes y metabólicas. El feto es esencialmente estéril hasta que el saco amniótico se rompe. Después de eso, la microbiota materna de la boca, el intestino, la vagina y el tracto urinario contribuye a la siembra inicial de la microbiota neonatal. Los recién nacidos se inoculan principalmente al nacer en el pasaje a través del canal de parto (transmisión vertical). Después de una serie de eventos de exposición (transmisión horizontal), a los 2 años, la composición de microbiota de un bebé se vuelve indistinguible de la de un adulto. En la evolución de los mamíferos, la pérdida o cambio potencial en la transmisión vertical de la microbiota de la madre a la descendencia podría compensarse mediante la microbiota transmitida horizontalmente (agua potable y de baño contaminada con heces, contacto físico frecuente, aglomeración social y familias numerosas). Sin embargo, la pérdida progresiva de microbiota transmitida verticalmente sin reemplazo horizontal representa un fenómeno de cohorte de nacimiento acumulativo. Los eventos que disminuyen la diversidad de la microbiota se han asociado clásicamente con el riesgo de enfermedad.

Cesárea perimortem por trauma penetrante por proyectil de arma de fuego con supervivencia fetal. Reporte de un caso / Perimortem C-Section after gunshot penetrating trauma with infant survival. Case report

Resumen Introducción: El trauma en el embarazo es un escenario complejo, y pocas publicaciones estudian los problemas secundarios a éste en el tercer trimestre, como es el caso de las indicaciones y resultados de las cesáreas de emergencia. La cesárea perimortem es un acontecimiento inusual; cuando se realiza, es el único recurso para obtener un recién nacido vivo. Si existe paro cardiorrespiratorio, la cesárea perimortem está indicada después de 4 a 5 minutos de inicio del paro en la madre. Caso: Mujer de 19 años, con antecedente de herida por proyectil de arma de fuego, que ingresó al cubículo de choque en paro y con maniobras de reanimación cardiopulmonar y embarazo de aproximadamente 36 semanas de gestación. Se realizaron 4 ciclos de reanimación sin reversión a circulación espontánea; por lo cual se decidió realizar cesárea de emergencia perimortem por un cirujano general en el área de choque. Se obtuvo un producto único vivo, y se reportó la defunción de la madre minutos después. Se trasladó el producto a la Unidad de Cuidados Intensivos Neonatales (UCIN), y 5 días después del procedimiento se reportó sin secuelas neurológicas. Conclusión: La primera razón para realizar de una cesárea perimortem es la supervivencia de la madre. Como se trata de una emergencia, no es necesario invertir tiempo en verificar la viabilidad fetal. En casos especiales, en los que debido a su patología la posibilidad de supervivenciade la madre es nula, la cesárea perimortem podrá realizarse para salvar la vida del producto. Realizar este procedimiento requiere tomar una decisión muy importante y de manera muy rápida, hay que resaltar la importancia del lugar donde se realizó, ya que era un centro de trauma, donde se cuenta con salas de choque especializadas para realizar procedimientos de emergencia con mayor rapidez, y personal capacitado sin necesidad de trasladarse a un quirófano para realizarlo, para obtener resultados satisfactorios.

Abstract Introduction: Trauma in pregnancy is a complex scenario, few publications study the issues after trauma in the 3rd trimester, including indications and outcomes in emergency C-Section. Perimorten Cesarean Section, is an unusual event, when it's performed it is the only resource for infant survival. When there is cardiac arrest, Perimortem Cesarean Section is indicated 4 to 5 minutes after cardiac arrest. Case: 19 year old female, with recent history of gunshot injury to the chest, arrives in cardiac arrest and with CPR and a 36 week pregnancy. 4 cycles of Cardiopulmonary resuscitation where performed without reversion to spontaneous circulation, then we decide to perform a Perimortem Cesarean Section by General Surgeon in the trauma room. Infant alive t is obtained, death of the mother is reported minutes later. The infant is transferred to NICU, 5 days after the procedure, it is reported without neurological sequelae. Conclusion: The first reason to perform a perimortem cesarean section is the survival of the mother, because it's an emergency, it's not necessary to lose time in verifying the infant's vitals. In special cases, in which there are few possibilities of mother survival, the perimortem cesarean section is performed for infant survival. Performing this procedure requires a very important decision making and in a quick way, it's very important to remark that this procedure was performed in a Trauma Center, which has the facilities as a trauma room, where we can do emergency procedures faster, and with the trained medical staff to do it, with no need to move to an operating room to perform it, obtaining successful outcomes.

Fatores associados à via de parto atual em mulheres com cesariana prévia / Factors associated with mode of delivery in present pregnancy in women with previous caesarean section

O aumento alarmante e crescente das taxas de cesariana é realidade mundial, representando problema de saúde pública, por se associar a maior morbidade materna e fetal além de elevados custos hospitalares. Uma das principais estratégias para diminuir esses índices é submeter a paciente com uma cesariana anterior à prova de trabalho de parto. O objetivo deste estudo foi descrever o desfecho neonatal e via de parto de pacientes com história de cesariana em gestação anterior e compará-los a primíparas. Foram avaliadas 188 mulheres, 94 em cada grupo, no período de janeiro a abril de 2010. A taxa global de cesariana foi de 42%. Nas primíparas 38,2%, e nas pacientes com uma cesariana anterior 77,6%. Apenas 46,8% das pacientes com uma cesariana anterior foram submetidas à prova de trabalho de parto, neste grupo a frequência de parto normal foi de 44,19%. Não houve diferença no desfecho neonatal ou obstétrico entre os grupos. Conclusão: Uma cesariana anterior aumenta em 5,6 vezes a chance de uma nova cesariana na gestação atual se comparadas à primíparas.

The alarming increase and rising rates of caesarean section is a worldwide reality, representing a public health problem, associated with increased maternal and fetal morbidity and higher hospital costs. A strategy to reduce these rates is to submit a patient with a previous cesarean to a trial of labour (VBAC). The objective of this study was to describe neonatal outcome and mode of delivery in patients with a cesarean section in previous pregnancy compared with primiparous. We evaluated 188 women, 94 in each group during the period from January to April 2010. The epidemiological profile of patients who had vaginal delivery or cesarean section were similar. The overall rate of cesarean section was 42%. In primiparous 38.2% and 77,6 % in patients with a previous cesarean section. Only 46.8% of patients with a previous cesarean section were submitted a trial of labor after c-section, in this group the frequency of vaginal delivery was 44.19%. There was no difference in neonatal outcome between groups. Conclusion: a previous caesarean section increases by 5.6 times the chance of a new caesarean section in the current pregnancy compared to primiparous women.

Spatial distribution of C-sections within the state of São Paulo / Distribuição espacial das cesarianas no Estado de São Paulo

Objective: to identify spacial patterns for cesarean deliveries per microregion in the state of São Paulo. Methods: this is an ecological and exploratory study with data on live births occurred between 2003 and 2007 in 63 microregions in the state of São Paulo. Variables analyzed included cesarean delivery rates, teenage mothers, mothers with high levels of education and who had at least seven prenatal consultations. Moran's index (I), a measure of spatial autocorrelation of rates related to the variables described above and which identifies the presence of spatial clusters, was calculated. The distributions of the variables' rates in this study were visualized using thematic maps. The Moran map was used to identify microregions with high priority need for attention. Pearson correlation coefficients among the variables were also obtained. Results: there were 3,045,293 births, being 1,636,009 (53.7 %) cesarean deliveries. It was possible to identify spatial clusters of C-sections (I = 0.58 and p < 0.01) in the microregions located on the north and northwest of the state of São Paulo, as well as in Guaratinguetá; the values found for Moran index were, I = 0.32, I = 0.30 and I = 0.24, for the rates of teenage mothers, schooling and number of consultations, respectively, being all significant results (p <0.01). Micro-regions with high-priority need for attention were identified. Cesarean rates were significantly correlated with high rates of maternal education and number of prenatal consultations. Conclusion: the identification of these microregion clusters with high rates of cesarean delivery allows health managers to implement policies in order to minimize these rates. .

Objetivo: identificar padrões espaciais para partos cesarianos por microrregião do Estado de São Paulo. Métodos: estudo ecológico e exploratório com dados de nascidos vivos entre 2003 e 2007 de 63 microrregiões do Estado de São Paulo. As variáveis analisadas neste estudo foram, além de taxas de parto cesariano, taxas de mães adolescentes, de mães com alta escolaridade e de mães que realizaram pelo menos 7 consultas no pré-natal. Foram calculados os índices de Moran (I), que estimam autocorrelação espacial das taxas das variáveis acima descritas e identificam a presença de aglomerados espaciais. Essas taxas foram visualizadas pelos mapas temáticos; microrregiões com alta prioridade de atenção foram identificadas pelo mapa de Moran. Foram calculados os coeficientes de correlação de Pearson entre as variáveis. Resultados: houve 3.045.293 partos, sendo 1.636.009 (53,72%) partos cesarianos. Foi possível identificar aglomerados espaciais de cesarianas (I = 0,58 e p < 0,01) nas microrregiões ao norte e noroeste do Estado, além de Guaratinguetá. Os valores dos índices de Moran foram, para as taxas de mães adolescentes, I = 0,32; para as taxas de alta escolaridade, I = 0,30; e para as taxas do número de consultas, I = 0,24, todos significativos (p<0,01). Foram identificadas microrregiões com alta prioridade de intervenção. As taxas de cesarianas estiveram correlacionadas significativamente com as taxas de alta escolaridade materna e com número de consultas. Conclusão: a identificação desses aglomerados de microrregiões com altas taxas de cesarianas permite aos gestores de saúde implantar políticas para minimizar tais taxas. .

Características sociodemográficas y reproductivas asociadas con el aumento de cesáreas en México / Sociodemographic and reproductive characteristics associated with the increase of cesarean section practice in Mexico

Objetivo. Describir la tendencia de la cesárea en México y su asociación con características sociodemográficas y reproductivas. Material y métodos. Con base en En-cuestas Nacionales de Salud 2000, 2006 y 2012, se analizó información de cesáreas en mujeres. Se utilizó un modelo de regresión logística multivariado en 2012. Resultados. Se identificó un incremento de 50.3% de la operación cesárea a nivel nacional en el periodo de 2000 a 2012. Las mujeres con mayor posibilidad de tener una cesárea fueron las que se atendieron en el sector privado (RM=2.84, 95%IC:2.153.74). Al asociar la edad y la paridad se observan los riesgos más altos en primíparas de 12 a 19 y de 35 o más años (RM=6.02, 95%IC:1.24-29.26 y RM=5.20, 95%IC:2.41-11.21, respectivamente). Conclusiones. Se proponen algunas recomendaciones encaminadas a revertir el incremento de esta práctica clínica, sobre todo en aquellos casos donde no hay una indicación precisa para su realización.

Objective. To describe the trend of cesarean section practice in Mexico, and its association with women's sociodemographic and reproductive characteristics. Materials and methods. Based on the 2000, 2006 and 2012 National Health Surveys, information on c-section was analyzed. A multivariate logistic regression model was used in 2012. Results. A 50.3% increase in the use of c-section was observed nationally from 2000 to 2012. Women more likely to undergo a c-section include those whose delivery care takes place in the private sector (OR=2.84, 95%CI:2.15-3.74). When associating women's age and parity, the greatest risks are observed among primiparous women between 12 and 19 years of age, and those aged 35 years and more (OR=6.02, 95%CI:1.24-29.26 and OR=5.20, 95%CI:2.41-11.21, respectively). Conclusions. Some recommendations to revert the increase of this clinical practice, especially when there is no full justification for its realization, are proposed.

Hipotensión en anestesia regional y velocidad de inyección / Hypotension in regional anesthesia and rate of injection

Introducción. Realizar una reflexión sobre el artículo “Anestesia regional subaracnoidea para cesárea y Pomeroy postparto. Aplicación de anestésico local a una velocidad de inyección menor o mayor a 60 segundos”, para aproximar al lector a otra perspectiva de los resultados presentados. Métodos. Se realizó una lectura crítica del artículo mencionado, con el fin de evaluar la calidad metodológica del mismo, las posibles fuentes de sesgo y de error, las variables de confusión y también para revisar los resultados desde esta nueva mirada. Resultados. La hipotensión es un desenlace frecuente cuando se aplica anestesia subaracnoidea y la velocidad de inyección de la misma puede ser parte de su causa. La serie de casos analizada tiene un tamaño de muestra limitado, por lo que en el estudio se puede presentar sesgo de información y factores de confusión, además de no haberse tenido en cuenta una posible interacción entre la velocidad de infusión y las mezclas de anestésicos empleados. Conclusión. Es necesario realizar un estudio de cohorte con mayor tamaño de muestra, el cual permita controlar la confusión mediante la estandarización de los procedimientos, el análisis estratificado por subgrupos y el modelamiento matemático para identificar tanto la fuerza de asociación entre la velocidad de inyección del anestésico y la aparición de hipotensión, como las posibles fuentes de confusión e interacción allí presentes.

Introduction. To present some thoughts on the article “Regional subarachnoid anesthesia for C-section and post-partum Pomeroy procedure. Application of a local anesthetic at a rate lower or greater than 60 seconds” in order to provide readers with a different perspective regarding the results reported. Methods. The paper was read critically in order to assess the quality of the methodology, the potential sources of bias and error, the confounding variables, and also to review the results from a fresh perspective. Results. Hypotension occurs frequently when subarachnoid anesthesia is applied, and the rate of injection may explain it in part. The case series analyzed has a limited sample size, creating the possibility of information bias and confounding factors, not to mention that the potential interaction between the rate of infusion and the mix of anesthetics was not considered. Conclusion. A cohort study with a larger sample size must be undertaken in order to control confusion by means of standardized procedures, an analysis stratified by subgroups, and mathematical modeling designed to identify the strength of association between the injection rate and the onset of hypotension, as potential sources of confusion and interaction.

El punto ciego de la anestesia obstétrica: monitoría fetal intraquirúrgica / The blind spot in obstetric anesthesia: intra-surgical fetal monitoring

Introducción. La monitoría fetal en pacientes obstétricas que son intervenidas de operación cesárea tiene un gran vacío, que corresponde al periodo transoperatorio. Pese al desarrollo vertiginoso de la tecnología en todos los ámbitos de la medicina, no ha sido posible establecer un método práctico para evaluar el bienestar fetal durante la cesárea. Objetivo. Se propone encontrar y diseñar un métodono invasivo y práctico que se pueda aplicar en un sitio distante al campo quirúrgico abdominal y que registre la frecuencia fetal continua como medida indirecta del bienestar fetal. Esta labor no solo atañe al anestesiólogo, sino, también, al obstetra y al pediatra. Metodología. Artículo de reflexión que surge luego de una pregunta realizada por estudiantes de anestesiología en el quirófano (pregrado y posgrado),sobre un método práctico de monitoría fetal no invasiva intraoperatoria. Se realizó busqueda en bases de datos de Medline, Ovid y Science Direct. Resultados. Actualmente, no hay un método de monitoría fetal apropiado (óptimo y práctico) para este periodo en el quirófano; es imperioso encontrar una salida por medio de la tecnología, que permita evaluar el bienestar fetal en el transoperatorio de la cesárea, en primera instancia, porque el tiempo quirúrgico tiene muchos factoresque lo pueden prolongar y ser un determinante en la falta de control de un evento hipóxico o isquémico en el feto; también, porque la seguridaden anestesia obstétrica y fetal debe ser exigente y crítica.

Introduction: There is a big gap in fetal monitoring in obstetric patients undergoing cesarean section during the transoperative period. Despite the astonishing technological developmentsin all medical areas, we have failed todevelop a practical method for the evaluation of the fetus wellbeing during a c-section intervention. Objective. A non-invasive and practical methodis suggested that can be used in a site distant from the abdominal surgical field to record the continuous fetal heart rate as an indicator of fetal wellbeing. This task would not only involve the anesthesiologist, but the obstetrician andthe pediatrician as well. Methodology. Producing an article that should be food for thought, based on a question askedby students of anesthesiology in the OR (graduate and postgraduate students), about a practical method for intraoperative fetal, noninvasivemonitoring. The search was conductedusing the Medline, Ovid and Science Direct data basis. Results. Notwithstanding the absence of an appropriate fetal monitoring method (optimal and practical) for this period of time in the OR, it is mandatory to find a technology-based solution to assess the wellbeing of the fetus during thetransoperative period of the c-section, firstly because there are multiple factors that may extend the surgical time and become a determining factorfor the lack of control of a hypoxic or schemic event of the fetus; secondly, because safety of obstetric and fetal anesthesia must be demandingand is critical.

Dosis mínima preoperatoria de dexametasona endovenosa comocoadyuvante de antiinflamatorio no esteroidal en el manejo deldolor postoperatorio de operación cesárea / Preoperative minimum dosage of intravenous dexamethasone as a helper to nonsteroidal antiinflammatory medicine in C section postoperative pain management

La operación cesárea (CS) es una cirugía mayor abdominal que genera dolor moderado a severo en el periodo postoperatorio. Se han utilizado diversos esquemas analgésicos basados en combinaciones de dos o más medicamentos. El objetivo del presente trabajo fue evaluar la utilidad de la dexamentasona(DXM) como coadyuvante de antiinflamatorios no esteroidales(AINEs) en el manejo del dolor postoperatorio de la operación CS. Se estudiaron pacientes cursando embarazo de términoprogramadas para operación CS electiva bajo anestesia espinal(AE), sin contraindicación de anestesia regional o utilización de DXM. Se dividieron en 3 grupos: Grupo 1 (n=18): 8 mL de Suero fisiológico (SF), administrado 5 minutos previos a la realización de la AE, Grupo 2 (n=18): 0,05 mg/Kg de DXM en 8 mL de SF, administrado 5 minutos previos a la realización de la AE, Grupo3 (n=18): 0,1 mg/Kg de DXM en 8 mL de SF, administrado5 minutos previos a la realización de la AE. Para la analgesia postoperatoria se administró metamizol sódico y ketoprofeno. Como terapia de rescate analgésico se utilizó morfina endovenosa. Se realizó medición de glicemia a las puérperas y su recién nacido. El dolor postoperatorio se registró a las 1, 4,8, 16, 24 y 48 horas mediante escala visual análoga (EVA). Se registró el consumo de morfina, incidencia de efectos adversos, complicaciones postoperatorias e índice de satisfacción de las pacientes. No hubo diferencias en los parámetros demográficos de los grupos de estudio. La medición de las glicemias maternas y de los recién nacidos fueron similares en los 3 grupos. La medición de EVA postoperatorio fue significativamente menor en los grupos 2 y 3 versus el grupo 1 entre las 4 y 16 horas del postoperatorio. El consumo de morfina fue menor en los grupos2 y 3 versus el grupo 1.Este ensayo clínico prospectivo, aleatorizado y doble ciego demostró que una dosis de 0,05 mg/kg de DXM EV preoperatoria reduce el dolor postoperatorio...

C-section (CS) is major abdominal surgery that causes moderate to severe pain during the postoperative period. A number of analgesic methods have been used based on two or more medicine combinations. The object of this work was to evaluate the usefulness of Dexamethasone (DXM) as a helper to nonsteroidal antiinflammatory medicine in the management of CS postoperative pain. The study included full term pregnant patients programmed to undergo CS under spinal anesthesia (SA) for whom there was no regional anesthesia or DXM contraindication. Patients werestudied in three groups: Group 1 (n=18): 8 mL of physiological saline solution (PSS) passed five minutes before SA; Group 2(n=18): 0.05 mg/Kg of DXM in 8 mL of PSS passed five minutes before the SA; Group 3(n=18): 0,1 mg/Kg of DXM in 8 m Lof PSS passed five minutes before the SA. For postoperative analgesia patients received metamizole sodium and ketoprofen. As a rescue analgesic therapy, intravenous morphine was administered. Patients and their newly born babies were tested to measure glycemia levels. Postoperative pain occurred after 1,4, 8, 16, 24 and 48 hours and was measured using the analogue visual scale (AVS). The use of morphine was registered, impact of negative effects, postoperative complications and patients’level of satisfaction. The study groups showed no differences in demographic parameters. Measurements of glycemia levels in both mothers and babies were similar in all three groups. Postoperative AVS measurement was significantly lower in groups 2 and 3 compared to those in group 1 between 4 hours and 16 hours during the postoperative period. Morphine consumption in groups 2 and 3was lower compared to group 1.This prospective, randomized, and double blind clinical trial showed that a 0.05 mg/kg of preoperative intravenous DXM dose reduces postoperative pain when in association with NSAIs...

Critical Pathways for Cesarean Section / 대한산부인과학회잡지

OBJECTIVES: The critical pathways provide high quality of medical services in a cost-effective manner. To investigate the decrease in length of hospital stay and increase of cost effectiveness by using critical pathways, we compared hospital stay, cost of treatment, and the patient's satisfaction before and after critical pathway use. METHODS: We made a critical pathway team, which consisted of obstetric staff members, a resident, two nurses, a pharmacist, two clerical staff members. We made critical pathways for the medical team and patients. A prospective evaluation of a critical pathway for cesarean section was used as a comparison for control patients. RESULTS: The data for 305 patients with a critical pathway were compared to those of 136 control patients. The mean hospital stay is shorter in critical pathway patients than control patients. The cost of treatment decreased and differences between DRG (Diagnosed Related Groups) and cost of treatment increased in critical pathway patients. CONCLUSIONS: Using critical pathways in cesarean section decreased the duration of hospital stay and increased cost effectivesess. The critical pathways were useful as a means to minimize cost while increasing patient satisfaction.

Variables Influencing 17-Hydroxyprogesterone Values in Newborn Screening for Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia

PURPOSE: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia(CAH), which is classified into salt-wasting, simple virilization and non-classic type according to clinical features, is difficult to detect in early stages. Failure to diagnose it in the initial state may lead to life-threatening adrenal crisis, inappropriate male sex assignment in the genetic female, acceleration of skeletal maturation and subsequent short stature. Therefore, we studied the variables increasing the 17-hydroxyprogesterone(OHP) values for more specific and sensitive diagnosis of CAH. METHODS: We classified 3,532 newborns into variable factors; gestational age, birth weight, gender, delivery type, sampling date and stress. Then, we analysed the relationships between 17-OHP values and variable factors. RESULTS: The mean value of 17-OHP was 4.21+/-0.03ng/ml. There were significant differences among the variable factors except gender. The mean value of male was 4.26ng/ml, and that of female was 4.15ng/ml(P=0.10). The mean value of 17-OHP in vaginal delivered newborn was higher than C-section delivered ones(4.71ng/ml, 3.34ng/ml, P=0.0001). It was also higher in low birth weight(P=0.0001), in prematurity(P=0.001), those sampled within 4 days(P=0.0001), stressful condition and ventilator care-assisted(P=0.004). CONCLUSION: 17-OHP value in neonatal screening is influenced by several variables such as vaginal delivery, ventilator management, low birth weight, sampling date and prematurity. If the 17-OHP value is increased, we have to consider the variables influencing the increase in value and follow up with time interval or analysis of genetic mutations.

Variables Influencing 17-Hydroxyprogesterone Values in Newborn Screening for Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia

PURPOSE: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia(CAH), which is classified into salt-wasting, simple virilization and non-classic type according to clinical features, is difficult to detect in early stages. Failure to diagnose it in the initial state may lead to life-threatening adrenal crisis, inappropriate male sex assignment in the genetic female, acceleration of skeletal maturation and subsequent short stature. Therefore, we studied the variables increasing the 17-hydroxyprogesterone(OHP) values for more specific and sensitive diagnosis of CAH. METHODS: We classified 3,532 newborns into variable factors; gestational age, birth weight, gender, delivery type, sampling date and stress. Then, we analysed the relationships between 17-OHP values and variable factors. RESULTS: The mean value of 17-OHP was 4.21+/-0.03ng/ml. There were significant differences among the variable factors except gender. The mean value of male was 4.26ng/ml, and that of female was 4.15ng/ml(P=0.10). The mean value of 17-OHP in vaginal delivered newborn was higher than C-section delivered ones(4.71ng/ml, 3.34ng/ml, P=0.0001). It was also higher in low birth weight(P=0.0001), in prematurity(P=0.001), those sampled within 4 days(P=0.0001), stressful condition and ventilator care-assisted(P=0.004). CONCLUSION: 17-OHP value in neonatal screening is influenced by several variables such as vaginal delivery, ventilator management, low birth weight, sampling date and prematurity. If the 17-OHP value is increased, we have to consider the variables influencing the increase in value and follow up with time interval or analysis of genetic mutations.

Decision-making process and satisfaction of pregnant women for delivery method / 예방의학회지

This study was conducted to assess the attitude of pregnant women toward delivery method, understanding of the reason for determining her own delivery method, participation in decision-making process and satisfaction with delivery method after labor. Study subjects were 693 pregnant women who had visited obstetric clinic for prenatal care in the last month of pregnancy in one general hospital and one obstetrics-gynecology specialty hospital in Taegu city from February 1 to March 31 in 1998. A questionnaire was administered before and after labor and a telephone interview was done one month after labor. Proportion of women who had health education and/or counselling about delivery method during prenatal care was 24.0% and this proportion was higher for women who had previous c-section(35.5%) than others. Women thought vaginal delivery is better than c-section for both maternal and baby's health regardless of previous delivery method. About 90% of primipara and multiparous women who had previous vaginal delivery wanted vaginal delivery for the index birth, while 85.6% of multiparous women who had previous c-section wanted repeat c-section. Reasons for choosing c-section in pregnant women who preferred vaginal delivery before labor were recommendation of doctors(81.9%), recommendation of husband(0.8%), agreement between doctor and pregnant woman(4.7%), and mother's demand(12.6%). Reasons for choosing vaginal delivery were mother's demand(30.6%) and no indication for c-section(67.2%). Reasons for choosing c-section in pregnant women who preferred c-section before labor were recommendation of doctors(76.2%), mother's demand(20.0%), recommendation of husband(1.3%), and agreement between doctor and pregnant woman(2.5%). Of the pregnant women who had c-section, by doctor's recommendation, the proportion of women who had heard detailed explanation about reason for c-section by doctor was 55.1%. Mother's statement about the reason for c-section was consistent with the medical record in 75.9%. However, over 5% points disparities were shown between mother's statement and medical record in cases of the repeat c-section and mother's demand. In primipara and multiparous women who had previous vaginal delivery, the delivery method for index birth had statistically significant association with the preference of delivery method before labor(p<0.05). All of the women who had previous c-section had delivered the index baby by c-section. Among mothers who had delivered the index baby vaginally, 84.9% of them were satisfied with their delivery method immediately after labor and 85.1% at 1 month after labor. However, mothers who had c-section stated that they are satisfied with c-section in 44.6% immediately after labor and 42.0% at 1 month after labor. Preferred delivery method for the next birth had statistically significant association with delivery method for the index birth both immediately after labor and in 1 month after labor. The proportion of mothers who prefer vaginal delivery for the next birth increased with the degree of satisfaction with the vaginal delivery for the index birth but the proportion of mothers who prefer c-section for the next birth was high and they did not change significantly with the degree of satisfaction with the c-section for the index birth. These results suggest that the current high technology-based, physician-centered prenatal and partritional cares need to be reoriented to the basic preventive and promotive technology-based, and mother-fetus-centered care. It is also suggested that active involvement of pregnant woman in decision-making process for the delivery method will increase the rate of vaginal birth after c-section and decrease c-section rate and improve the degree of maternal satisfaction after delivery.

The Effects of Fentanyl and Bupivacaine Mixture in Epidural Anesthesia for Cesarean Section / 대한마취과학회지

This study was performed to investigate the effects of fentanyl in epidural bupivacaine anesthesia for Cesarean section. 45 patients were enrolled in this study. The patients in group I(N=15) received 0.9% NaC1 2ml mixed with 20ml of bupivacaine 0.5%, group II(N=15) received 0.9% NaC1 1ml and fentanyl 50 ug mixed with 20 ml of bupivacaine 0.5%, and group IlI(N =15) received fentanyl 100ug mixed with 20 ml of bupivacaine 0.5%. The time of onset, segmental spread of analgesia, duration of analgesia, changes in arterial blood pressure and heart rate, the incidence of side effects, Apgar score and early neonatal neurobehavioral scale were observed after epidural anesthesia. The results were as follows 1) The time of onset and segmental spread of analgesia were very significantly shorter in group III compared to group I and group lI. 2) The spread of sensory blockade at 30 minutes after epidural injection showed no significant differences among the three groups. 3) The mean duration of analgesia was significantly longer in group IlI compared to group I and II. 4) There were no significant differences in the occurence of side effects among the three groups. 5) There were no significant differences in the Apgar score and early neonatal neurobehavioral scale among the neonates of the three groups. The above results suggested that fentanyl 100ug can be used as a good adjuvant for epidural anesthesia with bupivacaine for Cesarean section.