Anatomical Characteristics, Relations, and Clinical Considerations of the Facial Index and Cephalic Index in Young Chileans Aged Between 18 and 21 Years / Características Anatómicas, Relaciones y Consideraciones Clínicas del Índice Facial e Índice Cefálico en Jóvenes Chilenos entre 18 y 21 Años

SUMMARY: Humans throughout history have shown similarities between both their cephalic and facial complexion, among certain ethnic groups, due to genetic and demographic factors. Several studies have demonstrated the different constitutions of specific groups of people in order to generate data of a certain population or group. The present research aims to preliminarily study the existence of possible relations between Cephalic Index and Facial Index among categories of individuals in an odontology student population from a private university in Santiago, Chile. Empirical, descriptive, and cross-sectional study. In this study, 129 students with age range 18-21 were taken as subjects in a non-probabilistic way. Regarding Cephalic Index (CI), the Retzius classification was used, and the Facial Index (FI) was measured considering the maximum height of the face, from nasion to gnathion (Na-Gn), and the maximum width, from right zygion to left zygion (Zr-Zl). In this study, 129 people were taken as sample, 82 females and 47 males. Among women, the most predominant cephalic biotype was brachycephalic (59.8 %), followed by mesocephalic (37.8 %), and dolichocephalic (2.4 %). On the other hand, men's most common biotype was mesocephalic (57.5 %), followed by brachycephalic (36.2 %), and dolichocephalic (6.4 %). Regarding facial biotype, both in female and male subjects the following pattern was shown: euryprosopic (F: 59.7 %, M: 59.6 %), mesoprosopic (F: 26.8 %, M: 29.8 %), and leptoprosopic (F: 13.4 %, M: 10.6 %). Facial parameters of the subjects (odontology students from a Chilean university) tend to be mostly euryprosopic, followed by mesoprosopic and leptoprosopic. Additionally, mesocephalic biotypes tend to be similar to other studies conducted in Chile.

Los seres humanos a lo largo de la historia han mostrado similitudes tanto entre su complexión cefálica como facial, entre ciertos grupos étnicos, debido a factores genéticos y demográficos. Varios estudios han demostrado las diferentes constituciones de grupos específicos de personas para poder generar datos de una determinada población o grupo. La presente investigación tiene como objetivo estudiar preliminarmente la existencia de posibles relaciones entre el Índice Cefálico y el Índice Facial entre categorías de individuos en una población de estudiantes de odontología de una universidad privada de Santiago, Chile, en un estudio empírico, descriptivo y transversal. En este estudio, se tomó como sujetos de forma no probabilística a 129 estudiantes con edades comprendidas entre 18 y 21 años. Respecto al Índice Cefálico (IC), se utilizó la clasificación de Retzius, y el Índice Facial (FI) se midió considerando la altura máxima de la cara, desde nasión hasta gnatión (Na-Gn), y el ancho máximo, desde cigio derecho a izquierdo. cigio (Zr-Zl). En este estudio se tomó como muestra 129 personas, 82 mujeres y 47 hombres. Entre las mujeres, el biotipo cefálico más predominante fue el braquicéfalo (59,8 %), seguido del mesocefálico (37,8 %) y el dolicocéfalo (2,4 %). Por otro lado, el biotipo más común en los hombres fue el mesocefálico (57,5 %), seguido del braquicéfalo (36,2 %) y el dolicocéfalo (6,4 %). Respecto al biotipo facial, tanto en sujetos femeninos como masculinos se mostró el siguiente patrón: euriprosópico (F: 59,7 %, M: 59,6 %), mesoprosópico (F: 26,8 %, M: 29,8 %) y leptoprosópico (F: 13,4 %, M: 10,6 %). Los parámetros faciales de los sujetos (estudiantes de odontología de una universidad chilena) tienden a ser en su mayoría euriprosópicos, seguidos de mesoprosópicos y leptoprosópicos. Además, los biotipos mesocefálicos tienden a ser similares a otros estudios realizados en Chile.

Morphological and Morphometrical Studies on the Skull of Binturong (Arctictis binturong)

The binturong or bearcat is the largest species of the family Viverridae. It is uncommon in much of its range and has been assessed as vulnerable on the IUCN red list. The size of the head was small, narrow and light in proportion to the body. The skull of the binturong was dolichocephalic as per the cephalic index (56.25). There was no prominent internasal suture and the orbits were incomplete with optic foramen present near the ventral surface. The mean skull length, skull width, skull base length, cranial length, cranial width, cranial height, were 14.95±0.10 cm, 8.47±0.10 cm, 15.07±0.02 cm, 11.16±0.09 cm, 6.56±0.11 cm, 3.16±0.08 cm, respectively. The mean facial length, facial width, maxilla length, maxilla height, distance between infraorbital foramen, diameter of infraorbital foramina, nasal length, nasal width were 4.95±0.08 cm, 6.14±0.12 cm, 4.46±0.01 cm, 3.83±0.02 cm, 4.68±0.10 cm, 0.49±0.07 cm, 2.94±0.03 cm, 1.97±0.11 cm, respectively. Scanty literature available on morphological and morphometrical studies of the skull of binturong. Therefore this present study was aimed to establish a morphometric database that will eventually guide the use of these measurements for diagnosis and treating different disorders

Los tipos craneométricos caninos aparecen bien expresados a nivel de conformación del arco cigomático / Craneometric canine types are well expressed at the level of the zygomatic arch conformation

Dentro del espectro de conformación del cráneo, se reconocen generalmente tres amplias categorías que se corresponden con el concepto de biotipo cefálico, determinado por el Índice Cefálico. El Estos tres biotipos cefálicos son: el braquiocefálico, mesaticefálico y dolicocefálico, pero están basados en medidas lineales. A fin de revisar esta clasificación en base a su geometría, se estudiaron 53 cráneos de perros adultos, correspondientes a los tres grupos craneométricos descritos: 16 braquicéfalos, 20 mesaticéfalos y 17 dolicocéfalos. Para ello se obtuvieron fotografías en el plano ventral, en las que posteriormente se ubicaron 17 hitos anatómicos que se analizaron mediante técnicas de morfometría geométrica. De estos hitos, 5 correspondían a la zona neurocraneal y el resto al esplacnocráneo. Los tres grupos craneométricos mostraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre ellos tanto por el tamaño como por la forma. Las variables que contribuyeron más a explicar la diferenciación fueron las ubicadas en el margen más lateral de los arcos cigomáticos y en la base de este mismo arco. Las variables esplacnocraneales presentaban una alometría mucho más marcada que las neurocráneos. Puesto que el arco cigomático debe ser considerado como parte del esplacnocráneo, sugerimos que es tan importante el índice cefálico (que tiene en cuenta la máxima anchura de la cabeza) como el facial (que tiene en cuenta la máxima anchura de la cara). La conformación neurocraneal sería mucho más conservativa y por ende el índice craneal, de mucho menor poder discriminatorio entre grupos. El cambio entre tipos se debería a los músculos masetero y temporal, que tienen su inserción en el arco.

Within the wide conformation of skull spectrum, there are generally three recognized broad categories that correspond to the concept of cephalic biotype, determined by the cephalic index. The three cephalic biotypes are: brachiocephalic, mesaticephalic and dolichocephalic, which are based on linear measures. In order to revise this classification based on its geometry, we studied 53 skulls of adult dogs, corresponding to the three craneometric groups previously described: 16 brachycephalic, 20 mesaticephalic and 17 dolichocephalic. Images on ventral plane were obtained and 17 anatomical landmarks were subsequently located and analyzed by means of geometric morphometric techniques. Five of those landmarks corresponded to the neurocraneal area and the rest of the splanchnocranium. The three craneometric groups showed statistically significant differences between them for both size and shape. The variables that contributed to the differentiation between them were located along the edge of the zygomatic arches and on the basis of this arch. Splanchnocranial variables also presented a much more marked allometry than the neurocraneal variables. Since the zygomatic arch should be considered as part of the splanchnocranium, we suggest that the cephalic index (which takes into account the maximum width of the head) is as important as the facial index (which takes into account the maximum width of the face). The neurocraneal index would be much more conservative, and therefore less discriminatory between the groups.

Morphological and Applied Anatomical Studies on the Head Region of Malayan Sun Bear (Helarctos malayanus)

The Malayan sun bear is the smallest of the eight bear species. The aim of the research was to investigate the morphological and applied anatomical characteristics of the head region of the Malayan sun bear. The size of the head is large, broad and heavy in proportion to the body. The skull of the Malayan sun bear was mesocephalic according to the cephalic index (80.48). The skull length, skull width, cranial length and maximum skull height was 21.47 cm, 17.28 cm, 17.81 cm and 9.40 cm, respectively. The nasal length, nasal perpendicular height, nasal horizontal-transverse width and nasal circumference were 3.59 cm, 3.50 cm, 3.20 cm and 10.52 cm, respectively. The length and height of the mandible were 14.65 cm and 7.09 cm, respectively. There is no literature available on the regional applied anatomy of maxillofacial and mandibular regions of the Malayan sun bear. Therefore, this study was designed to provide information on morphological and applied anatomical studies on the head region of the Malayan sun bear. This is the first detailed study to provide morphological characteristics of the head region of Malayan sun bear and this information will aid the clinicians in the application of regional anaesthesia in Malayan sun bear

Prediction of Cephalic Phenotype by Measuring Cephalic Index and to Study the Correlation between Cephalic Phenotype and Cephalic Index

Background: Dimensional relationship between bodysegments and stature has been the focus of scientists for manyyears. Therefore, prediction of stature from cranial remains isvital in establishing the identity of an unknown individual. Thepresent study was conducted to predict cephalic phenotype bymeasuring cephalic index and to study the correlation betweencephalic phenotype ad cephalic index.Materials and Methods: In this prospective observationalstudy 600 patients attending in the Outpatient department ofmedical, dental and other college’s students of age group 21-25 years in various colleges at Jaipur, India were selected forthe study. Data regarding Head length and Head breadth wascollected. A complete physical examination was carried out.The data collected was compiled, tabulated, analyzed andsubjected to statistical tests. Analysis was done using SPSS.Results: In the present study total sample size was 600 inwhich 300 were male and 300 were female. Mean age offemales was found to be 22.82 and mean age of males wasfound to be 22.96. In our study age group selected was 21 to25 years where 21 were the minimum age found in our studyand 25 being the maximum. In present study result showedthat of the Dolicocephalic Male was 7.66%, Mesocephalic Malewas 82 %, Brachycephalic Male was 10.33%. DolicocephalicFemale 25 was 8.33%, Mesocephalic Female was 84 %,Brachycephalic Female was 7.66% ,Dolicocephalic (Male &female) was 8%, Mesocephalic (Male & female) was 83 %,Brachycephalic (Male & female) 54 was. 9% .Significantdifference was observed in cephalic index between males andfemales.Conclusion: Our study concluded that cephalic index showedsignificant difference.

Sutural Bones: A Study On Incidence, Laterality And Co-relation With Cephalic Index In Dry Crania Of East Indian Ethnicity

Background: Sutural bones are supranumary bones occurring along the sutures and completely surrounded bysutures of the skull. Their number, morphology and location in skull vary in skulls. The knowledge of these bonesis imperative in surgery, medicolegal cases involving child abuse or fracture of skulls and for anthropologicidentification of human populations. This study was undertaken to examine incidence and pattern of distributionof sutural bones in dry skulls from Eastern India and compare the findings with similar studies across the world.Materials and Method: 180 dry crania were identified as male or female skulls and studied for the incidence andpattern of distribution of sutural bones. Also the Cephalic Index was measured for finding its correlation withthe number of sutural bones appearing in a skull.Results: 124 skulls were identified as male and 56 as female skulls. Overall incidence of sutural bone occurrencewas found to be 72.28% which was essentially similar across sexes. The most common sites for sutural bones,in descending order of occurrence, were found to be parieto-occipital suture, asterion, pterion and lambda.Bregma was the least common site where no sutural bone was encountered. A highly statistically significantfinding was in regard to laterality of sutural bone occurrence. Sutural bones occurring along coronal, parietotemporal, parieto-mastoid, occipito-mastoid sutures and pterion exhibited more than 80% tendency towardsunilateral occurrence while those occurring at asterion exhibited around 70% tendency towards unilateraloccurrence. All these findings, although displayed variable degree of sexual dimorphism, were statisticallyinsignificant for variation among sexes. No correlation between the number of sutural bones with cephalic indexwas found.Conclusion: The findings of this study are in agreement with the findings of many similar suitably poweredstudies across the world.

Comparative Assessment Of Cephalic Index Among Bini And Igbo Tribes In Benin City, Nigeria

Background and Objective: In cephalometry, parameters like the head length, head width and cephalic index arevery important in the description of human morphology, variation in different gender and races of humanpopulation and making comparison between healthy individuals and clinical patients. Furthermore, they canalso be used to categorize human head morphology into different types and to make comparative study ofdifferent human populations. This comparative study was carried out to describe the cranial morphologyamong adolescent and young adult individuals of Bini and Igbo ethnic groups in Nigeria.Methodology: This study involved 260 Bini and 245 Igbo subjects between ages 11 – 25 years. The head lengthof each subject was measured between the glabella and inion while the head breadth measured between theparietal prominences using spreading and sliding calipers. The cephalic index of each subject was calculatedas the ratio of the head breadth to it length expressed as a percentageResults: The mean cephalic indices among the two tribes were higher in males than in females in all the agegroups studied. With increasing age, the cephalic index value decreases among the Bini tribe but increasesamong the Igbo tribe. Based on the morphological classification of the cephalic index values, the brachycephalichead type was the most prevalent among both Bini (55.4%) and Igbo (66.9) tribes while the least common headtype among the Bini and Igbo tribes were hyperbrachycephalic (8.1%) and dolicephalic (0.4%) respectively.Conclusion: The cephalic index demonstrated inter-tribal variation, prominent intra-tribal sexual dimorphismand brachycephalization is the dominant trend in cranial morphology of both Bini and Igbo tribes in Nigeria.

Anthropometric Study Of Cephalic Index Of Gond Tribe And Non-tribe Boys Of Mungeli District, Chhattisgarh State, India

Introduction: Cephalic index, the percentage of breadth to length in any skull. Cephalic index is useful inestablishing ethnic differences and affiliations and very useful to find out racial differences.Materials and Methods: The present study consisted of acquisition of anthropometric data for Gond tribe andnon-tribe boys from the same area. A total number of 279 Gond tribe boys and 282 non tribe boys were examinedfor the Head length & Head Breadth using spreading caliper. The index was calculated from measurement of thediameters of the skull. Descriptive analysis was carried out and comparative statistics was used to observedifference between Gond tibe boys and Non-tribe boys on various anthropometric measurements and mean,standard deviation, student, t- test, p value was computed to see the relationship between anthropometricvariables.Results: Most of the Gond Tribe boys were Mesocephalic (26%) and Brachycephalic (31%), while most of the NonTribe boys were Mesocephalic (27%), Brachycephalic (27%) and hyper Brachycephalic (27%). Few among bothGond tibe boys and Non-tribe boys were Hyperdolicocephalic and Ultra-brachycephalic.Conclusion: In the present study we conclude that not a single head form can be defining attributes of the twogroups. As head form of both GT and NT were overlapping most of them were Mesocephalic & Brachycephalictype. There is need to conduct anthropometric & genetic studies to backup these observed anthropometricsimilarities. Such data is of great medico legal and forensic importance which indicates that Cephalic Index canbe used as marker of ethnicity, and race as it is an important parameter in forensic medicine, anthropology andgenetics to know the sex and racial differences between individuals

Cephalic Index in Population of District Jhalawar, Rajasthan According to Food Habit and it's Significance

Background: Cephalic index exhibits sexual differences and different shapes of head. This information will be highly important for Plastic surgeons, Forensic Scientists, Anatomists, Human Biologists, Criminologists & Physical Anthropologists. Materials & Methods: The present study was observed on 200 living subjects of Jhalawar district Rajasthan (100 male and 100 female) of 18 to 25 years in the year of 2013 with the objective to study the sex differences and food habitual in cephalic index. Cephalic index was investigated with the help of head length and width with the use of spreading caliper. Results: The study showed that mean cephalic index was higher in females than in males. Conclusion: Predominant head type was dolicocephalic in both sexes.

Potential donor sites of the parietal for bone grafting and its relationship to the cephalic index / Sitios donantes potenciales del hueso parietal para injerto óseo y su relación con el índice cefálico

The purpose of the present study was to chart the thickness of the parietal bone and establish its relationship with the cephalic index and sex aiming at improving current knowledge and guidance for obtaining calvarial bone auto-graft material. Both left and right parietal bones of 150 skulls of adult human cadavers classified as either dolicho-, meso-, or brachicephalic, and as either male or female had their thickness measured at 3 levels ­ superior (S), middle (M) and inferior (I) ­ and at 3 points ­ anterior (a), middle (m) and posterior (p) ­ in each level, all evenly laid out. No relevant differences in thickness whether comparing sex or cephalic index was evidenced. The thickest measurements were found at points located at superior and middle levels in middle and posterior positioning ­ Sm, Sp, Mm and Mp ­ with median values ranging from about 5.5mm to 7.13mm. At inferior level and posterior positioning, thickness median values ranged from 4.71 to 5.84mm. Safer harvesting of bone graft material occurs in Sm, Sp, Mm and Mp areas of the parietal bone. Only exceptionally should Ip domain be used, whereas Sa, Ia and Im regions should be considered non-donor sites.

El propósito del estudio fue medir el grosor del hueso parietal y establecer su relación con el índice cefálico y el sexo, con el objetivo de mejorar el conocimiento actual y la orientación para el auto-injerto de material óseo. Fueron estudiados huesos parietales, tanto izquierdos como derechos, de 150 cráneos de cadáveres humanos adultos, de hombres y mujeres, clasificados como dolico-, meso- o braquicefálico; el espesor fue medido en 3 niveles: superior (S), medio (M) e inferior (I) - y en 3 puntos - anterior (a), medio (m) y posterior (p) - en cada nivel, todas uniformemente establecidas. No se observaron diferencias relevantes en el grosor a nivelrespecto del sexo o el índice cefálico. Las mediciones más gruesas se encontraron en los puntos situados en los niveles superior y medio, y en posiciones medias y posteriores - Sm, Sp, Mm y Mp - con valores medianos que oscilaban entre aproximadamente 5,5 mm y 7,13 mm. En el nivel inferior y posicionado posterior, los valores medianos del espesor oscilaron entre 4,71 y 5,84 mm. La recolección más segura del material de injerto óseo ocurre en las áreas Sm, Sp, Mm y Mp del hueso parietal. Sólo excepcionalmente se debe utilizar el dominio Ip, mientras que las regiones Sa, Ia e Im deben considerarse sitios no donantes.

The study of cephalic index in North Indian population / Estudio de Índice cefálico en una población del norte de India

Cephalic index (CI) and head shape are greatly affected by geographical, sex, age and racial factors. Such data is of great medico legal and forensic importance which indicates that cephalic index can be used as marker of ethnicity. There is less published literature about cephalic index of Punjab population. Hence, we undertook this study to document the cephalometric characteristics and gender differences in cephalic index of Punjabi community. Head length, head breadth and CI were determined for 500 medical students (17­23 years) of Punjab. The mean cephalic index for males was 80.52 and for females 84.32 which was statistically significant. On comparison with the existing literature the Punjabi community can be categorized as Brachycephalic/ Hyperbrachicephalic. This is of immense value in forensic science for facial reconstruction of disputed identity, orthodontics, different oral & maxillofacial surgery or craniofacial surgery, paleoanthropology and phylogeography.

El índice cefálico (IC) y la forma de la cabeza se ven afectados en gran medida por las regiones geográficas, el sexo, la edad y los factores raciales. Este tipo de dato son de gran importancia legal y forense dado que el IC puede ser utilizado como marcador de la etnia. Hay escasa literatura publicada sobre el IC de la población de Punjab. Por lo tanto, se realizó este estudio para documentar las características cefalométricas y las diferencias de sexo en el IC de una comunidad Punjabi. La longitud y ancho la cabeza, junto al IC, fueron determinados en 500 estudiantes de medicina (17­23 años) de Punjab. El IC medio para los hombres fue de 80,52 y para las mujeres 84,32, lo que fue estadísticamente significativo. En comparación con la literatura existente, la comunidad Punjab puede ser categorizada como braquicefálica/ hiperbraquicefálica. Esta información es de importancia para las ciencias forenses en relación a la reconstrucción facial con fines de identificación, como así también para la cirugía oral, maxilofacial, craneofacial, la paleoantropología y la filogeografía.

Morphometrical studies on the skull of indian blackbuck (Antelope cervicapra) / Estudios morfológicos en el cráneo del antílope indio (Antelope cervicapra)

The phenotypic appearance of the head of animal species depends strongly on the shape of the skull. The morphometric studies of the skull show that variability in the shape and proportions of bones is influenced by genetic and environmental factors. The present study was carried out first time on the morphometrical characteristics on skull of Indian Blackbuck. Craniometric measurements for 48 different parts of the skulls of Indian blackbuck were made in this study. All investigated features were expressed as Mean±SE. The craniometric measurements and cephalic indices had been compared with ruminants. The mean lengths of the skulls were found to be 20.68±0.02 cm, with the width and cephalic index to the magnitude of 9.54±0.03 cm and 46.12±0.12 cm, respectively. The cranial length, width and height in blackbuck were 10.40±0.02 cm, 6.13±0.02 cm and 7.13±0.02 cm, respectively. The cranial index was 59.00±0.11. The mean facial length, facial width and facial index were 11.53±0.08 cm, 9.30±0.01 cm and 80.67±0.44 cm, respectively. The mean weight of the skull with mandible in blackbuck was 182.37±0.54.

La apariencia fenotípica de la cabeza de especies animales depende principalmente de la forma del cráneo. Los estudios morfométricos del cráneo muestran que la variabilidad en la forma y proporciones de los huesos está influenciada por factores genéticos y ambientales. El presente estudio se llevó a cabo por primera vez en las características morfométricas en el cráneo del antílope indio. En este estudio se efectuaron mediciones craneométricas en 48 partes de los cráneos de antílope indio. Todas las características investigadas se expresaron como Media±EE. Las mediciones craneométricas e índices cefálicos fueron comparados con los rumiantes. Se encontró que las longitudes medias de los cráneos eran de 20,68±0,02 cm, con el ancho y el índice cefálico de 9,54±0,03 cm y 46,12±0,12 cm, respectivamente. La longitud del cráneo, ancho y alto en antílope indio eran 10,40±0,02 cm, 6,13±0,02 cm y 7,13±0,02 cm, respectivamente. El índice craneal era 59,00±0,11. La longitud media del rostro, ancho facial e índice facial eran 11,53±0,08 cm, 9,30±0,01 cm y 80,67±0,44 cm, respectivamente. El peso medio del cráneo con la mandíbula en el antílope indio fue de 182,37±0,54.

Mandibular foramen location and lingula height in dentate dry mandibles, and its relationship with cephalic index / Localización del foramen mandibular y altura de la língula mandibular en mandíbulas dentadas secas, y su relación con el índice cefálico

The mandibular foramen and its lingula is a major landmark when administering anesthetic or performing surgical procedures. The objective of this study was to determine whether the topological features of the mandibular foramen (MF) and lingula varied in mandibles from skulls of different cephalic indexes. The location of the mandibular foramen referred to the longitudinal borders of the mandibular ramus (MR), height of the foramen (Hf) referred to the occlusal line of the second molar, and the height of the lingula (Hl) were determined in a total of one hundred and five dry mandibles from skulls identified as dolicho- meso- and brachycephalic. On average MF in brachycephalic mandibles was closest to the anterior border of MR. Hf in brachy-, meso- and dolichocephalic mandibles were -0.22 mm, -4.04 mm and -4,01mm, respectively. The lingula in brachycephalic specimens was considerably shorter (0.78 mm) than in dolichocephalic ones (1.84 mm). Inferior alveolar nerve block should be carried out using shorter needles, inserting it 4mm above the occlusion level of the molar teeth. The ramus of brachicephalic mandibles were significantly less wide those of dolicho- and mesocephalic ones. If the height of the lingula is to be used as a reference to judge the level of the medial horizontal cut to carry out sagittal split ramus osteotomy, special attention should be given to the patient's cephalic index.

El foramen mandibular y la língula son los puntos anatómicos más importantes a considerar en la administración de anestesia troncular o la realización de procedimientos quirúrgicos en la mandíbula. El objeivo fue determinar si las características topológicas del foramen mandibular (FM) y la língula mandibular presentan variaciones en las mandíbulas de cráneos con diferentes índices cefálicos. Fueron utilizados 105 mandíbulas secas, pertenecientes a cráneos identificados como dolico, meso y braquicéfalos. En cada caso, se relacionaron la ubicación del FM con los márgenes longitudinales de la rama mandibular (RM) y la altura del foramen (Af) con la línea oclusal del segundo molar. Además, se determinó la altura de la língula (Al). En promedio, el FM de mandíbulas braquicefálicas se encontró más cerca del margen anterior de la RM. La Af en mandíbulas braqui, meso y dolicocéfalas fue de -0,22 mm, -4,04 mm y -4,01 mm, respectivamente. La língula mandibular en muestras braquicefálicas, fue considerablemente más corta (0,78 mm) que en las dolicocéfalas (1,84 mm). El bloqueo del nervio alveolar inferior debe llevarse a cabo usando agujas cortas, insertándolas 4 mm por encima del nivel de oclusión de los dientes molares. La rama de las mandíbulas braquicefálicas fueron significativamente menos anchas que en cráneos dolico y mesocefálicos. Si la altura de la língula mandibular se utilizará como referencia para determinar el nivel del corte medial horizontal para realizar la osteotomía sagital de la rama mandibular, se debe dar especial atención al índice cefálico del paciente.

study of cephalic index and facial index in Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Background: The description of the human body has been a major concern since ancient times. The use of medical terminology enhances reliability of comparison made between studies from different areas thereby contributing higher level of scientific evidence. Cephalic index is an important parameter in forensic medicine, anthropology and genetics to know the sex and racial differences between individuals. Facial index is useful index for forensic scientists, plastic surgeons and anatomist. The parameters are useful for plastic surgeons during treatment of congenital and traumatic deformities, identification of individuals in medicolegal cases by forensic scientists and identifying craniofacial deformities of genetic syndromes by geneticist. Methods: 170 males and 110 female adults from Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India region are included in this study. Anthropometric points for cephalic index were measured by using spreading calipers. Facial index measurements were taken by measuring tape. All measurements were taken in subjects sitting in relaxed condition and subjects head is in anatomical position. Cranial index and facial index were calculated as per the formula. Results: Maximum number of males with mean cephalic index values of 80.21 were observed as mesocephalic and female with mean value of 79.25 observed as brachycephalic. Regarding facial index males were leptoprosopic and females were mesoprosopic. Conclusion: Cephalic index and facial index were terms used by anthropologists, anatomists, plastic surgeons and forensic scientists to identify individual’s race and sex for treatment of craniofacial deformities.

Cranial Index In North Indian Crania (Predominantly Haryanavi).

Shape of crania is seen by measuring cranial index in 150 (115 male and 35 female) crania. Crania were obtained from the department of Anatomy, Pt. B.D. Sharma PGIMS Rohtak. In males, 91.07 % crania were found dolichocephalic while in females 97.14% crania were dolichocephalic. Few crania were found mesocephalic (6.25% in males and 2.85% in females) in both sexes. None of female crania was seen as brachycephalic. Percentage obtained in present study is quite different from any other population studied as most of the crania were dolichocephalic. So it can be used as a tool to identify crania of this region.

Cranial Anthropometry in 600 North Indian Adults.

The present study was conducted on 600 adults, comprising of equal number of males and females, within the age group of 18 year and above and of North Indian origin. The purpose of study was to access the head length, head width and to find out the relationship of these parameters with each other. Cephalic Index was calculated. The data so obtained was compiled and analysed statistically to observe baseline data and then compared with previous available data. This data can be useful for experts in forensic and allied surgical branches. The average head breadth and head length found in study were 139.51 mm, 186.88 mm respectively in males and 136.19 mm, 177.74 mm respectively in females. On the basis this study it was concluded that North Indian males have dolichocephalic type of head and females have mesocephalic type of head.

Cephalic and facial indices among kosovo-albanian population / Índices cefálico y facial en la población kosovar-albanesa

Cephalic and facial indices are used to estimate the racial and sex differences. This study was carried out to establish standards for craniofacial variables and distribution of cephalic and facial indices in Kosovo - Albanian population. The study population consisted of 204 dental students (101 males and 103 females, aged 18 to 30). Four basic craniofacial variables (head length, head breadth, morphological face height and face breadth) were measured to obtained cephalic and facial indices. All measured craniofacial variables are considerably higher in males than in females (p<0.0001). In the Kosovo ­ Albanian population brachycephalic type of head (44.61 percent) and hyperleptoprosopic type of face (63.34 %) prevail.

Los índices cefálicos y faciales se utilizan para estimar las diferencias raciales y de sexo. Este estudio se llevó a cabo para establecer estándares para las variables y la distribución de los índices cefálicos y faciales en la población de Kosovo- Albanesa. Se examinaron 204 estudiantes de odontología (101 hombres y 103 mujeres entre 18 y 30 años). Se midieron cuatro variables craneofaciales básicas (longitud de la cabeza, ancho de la cabeza, altura facial morfológica y ancho facial) para obtener los índices cefálicos y faciales. Todas las variables medidas craneofaciales fueron considerablemente más altas en los hombres que en las mujeres (p <0,0001). En la población Kosovo-Albania predomina la braquiocefalia (44,61 por ciento) y la hiperleptoprosopía (63,34 %).

Cephalofacial characteristics of children under 6 years of age in East of Nigeria.

Objectives: The present study aimed at measuring the length and width of the head and face of children under the age of six years in Anambra state, a South Eastern state of Nigeria. Data obtained was used to calculate their respective craniofacial indices. Methods: Four hundred and fifty four children (226 males and 228 females) below the age of six were randomly sampled from pre-nursery and nursery schools. Subjects with signs of deformities or history of head and facial injuries and mental retardations were excluded from the study. Measuring tape and spreading callipers were used to measure the length and width of the head and face. Results: Results indicated that the mean head length and breadth, face length and breadth, cephalic index and facial index did not indicate significant gender differences. Mesocephalic head type was the predominant, accounting for 39.9% of the study population; brachycephalic, dolicocephalic, hyperbrachycephalic heads accounted for 35.9%, 12.1% and 7.7% respectively, while ultrabrachycephalic was the least prevalent (4.4%). The dominant type of face was found to be hypereuryprosopic accounting for about 44.5% of the study population. Euryprosopic, mesoprosopic, and leptoprosopic types of face accounted for 39.2%, 11.2%, and 4% of the sampled population respectively, while the rare type was found to be hyperleptoprosopic with 1.1%. Conclusion: This study indicates no significant gender differences in the craniofacial variables in a cross-section of Nigerian children under 6 years of age. The most prevalent type of head was the mesocephalic type while the most dominant type of face shape was hypereuryprosopic in both male and female subjects.

Anatomical study of the retroarticular process in dry human skulls

Introduction: The retroarticular process is a bony prominence formed by the thickening of the lateral borderof the mandibular fossa, forming the posterior wall of the temporomandibular joint. Since little is known anddiscussed about the retroarticular process, our aim was to study its presence, shape and size, relating thesefindings to the shape of the skulls according to the horizontal cephalic index.Materials and Methods:Weused 400 dry human skulls of the Institute of Science and Technology–UNESP Anatomy Laboratory. Eachskull was classified in brachycranics, mesocranics or dolichocranics, and then positioned on a craneostat tomeasure the height of the retroarticular process from its lower extremity to the auriculo-orbital plane. Thewidth was obtained by measuring the base of the process on its longer lateral axis.Results:The retroarticularprocess was found bilaterally in 397 skulls (99.25%). All the processes were classified into the following shapes:pyramidal (35.55%), tubercular (31.78%), mammilar (20.73%), crest-like (9.05%) and molar shape (2.89%);254 skulls (63.50%) showed the same type of process at the right and left sides (Kappa=0.496, moderateagreement). The average height and width were 5.28 mm and 12.81 mm, respectively.Conclusion:Theretroarticular process was found in almost all the skulls examined. There are no significant evidences aboutthe relationship among the presence, shape and size of the retroarticular process and the shape of the skullsaccording to the horizontal cephalic index. However, our findings led us to infer that there would be afunctional relationship between the process and the temporomandibular joint.

The study of cephalic index in living subjects in Gujarat Region.

Background and objectives: The cephalic index exhibits sexual differences and different shapes of head. This information will be highly important for Plastic surgeons, Forensic Scientists, Anatomists, Human Biologists, Criminologists & Physical Anthropologists.Method: The present study was performed on 510 living subjects of Gujarat (243 male and 267 female) of 18 to 30 years in the year of 2011 with the objective to study the sex differences in cephalic index. Cephalic index was investigated with the help of head length and width with the use of spreading caliper.Result: The study showed that mean head length and width were higher in males than in females , while mean cephalic index was higher in females than in males. Interpretation and Conclusion: Predominant head type was mesocephalic in both sexes and there was no significant gender difference (p value > o.o1).