ABSTRACT
Resumo Vários estudos rastreando possíveis fontes que teriam norteado Skinner na construção do Behaviorismo sugeriram, de modo pouco preciso, elos científicos entre Claude Bernard e Skinner. Considerando o assunto, este trabalho realizou um comparativo sistemático entre ambos os autores, através das seguintes categorias: (1) interação organismo-ambiente; (2) mentalismo; (3) indução-dedução; e (4) delineamento do sujeito único. Embora diferenças tenham sido encontradas entre as categorias (1), a análise de variáveis externas, e na (2), rejeição de explicações sem bases científicas, essas diferenças estão presentes em ambas as teorias. Na categoria (3), Skinner e Bernard apresentaram posicionamento distintos. Quanto à análise do delineamento intrassujeito, ambos denotaram várias compatibilidades, diferenciando-se, principalmente, por conta de seus objetivos epistêmicos.
Abstract Several studies tracking down possible sources that would have given direction to Skinner in the development of Behaviorism, suggested an inaccurate scientific link between Claude Bernard and Skinner. Considering this subject, this work performed a systematic comparison between both authors, through the following categories: (1) organism-environment interaction; (2) mentalism; (3) induction-deduction; and method of the single case. Although differences have been found, in category (1), the analysis of the external variables, and in (2), rejection of explanation without scientific basis, were detected in both theories. In category (3), Skinner and Bernard show different opinions. As to the analysis of the intrasubject design, both detonated several compatibilities, differing, mainly because of its epistemic objectives.
ABSTRACT
The syndrome called mainly in the French world as Claude Bernard Horner was frst described by Francois Pourfour du Petit, in 1727, but more thoroughly defned by the French physiologist, Claude Bernard, in 1852, followed by several physicians who oï¬ered diï¬erent interpretations, mainly Silas Weir Mitchell (1864). The clinical and pharmacological implications, with the fnal wrap-up of the syndrome, were presented by a Swiss ophthalmologist, Johann Friedrich Horner, in 1869. This is a cooperative defnition of a syndrome of the sympathetic disruption of the ocular inervation, with fnal addings mainly about pharmacological approach by Horner, but with credits to many others clinicians and physiologists. This is the case of repeated presentations of a "new sign" in neurology with few additions from one to another.
A síndrome chamada principalmente no mundo francês como Claude Bernard Horner foi descrita pela primeira vez por François Pourfour du Petit, em 1727, mas mais profundamente defnida pelo fsiologista francês, Claude Bernard, em 1852, seguido por vários médicos que ofereceram interpretações diferentes, principalmente Silas Weir Mitchell (1864). As implicações clínicas e farmacológicas, com o desfecho fnal da síndrome, foram apresentadas por um oftalmologista suíço, Johann Friedrich Horner, em 1869. Esta é uma defnição cooperativa de uma síndrome da ruptura da inervação simpática ocular, com adições fnais principalmente sobre a abordagem farmacológica por Horner, mas com créditos para muitos outros médicos e fsiologistas. É o caso de repetidas apresentações de um "novo sinal" na neurologia, com poucas adições de um para o outro.
Subject(s)
Humans , History, 21st Century , Horner Syndrome/diagnosis , Horner Syndrome/etiology , Horner Syndrome/history , Pupil Disorders/diagnosis , Autonomic Nervous System , Eye/innervationABSTRACT
Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll, pseudonym of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, is a psychedelic dream tale apparently made for amusement. But, many speculations may be raised about its characters and phenomena created by a devout, learned and imaginative mathematician/logistician. Some issues based on the Cheshire cat due to its vanishing apparitions and its clever arguments are considered. The interpretation of the visual perception may include the "binding problem" issue. Regarding the cat's thought about inquiry, fundamental for researchers, this represents similar reasoning to that of Claude Bernard. Secondarily, some neurological and psychopathological speculations are also focused.
As aventuras de Alice no País das Maravilhas por Lewis Carroll, pseudônimo de Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, é um conto de sonho psicodélico, aparentemente feito para diversão. Mas muitas especulações podem ser levantadas sobre seus personagens e fenômenos criados por um devoto, erudito e criativo matemático/especialista em logística. São feitas algumas considerações sobre o gato de Cheshire devido suas aparições evanescentes e seus argumentos inteligentes. A interpretação sobre a percepção visual pode incluir a questão do "binding problem". Em relação ao pensamento do gato sobre a investigação, fundamental para os pesquisadores, isso representa raciocínio similar ao de Claude Bernard. Secundariamente, algumas especulações neurológicas e psicopatológicas também são apresentadas.
Subject(s)
Humans , Perceptual Distortion , Neuropsychiatry , Alice in Wonderland Syndrome/diagnosis , Alice in Wonderland Syndrome/history , Literature, Modern/history , Psychopathology , Migraine DisordersABSTRACT
Claude Bernard (1813-1878) followed two main research paths: the chemical and physiological study of digestion and liver function, along with experimental section of nerves and studies on sympathetic nerves. Curare studies were, for example, of longstanding interest. His profound mental creativity and hand skillfulness, besides methodology quality, directed his experiments and findings, mainly at the Collège de France. His broader and epistemological concerns were carried out at the Sorbonne and later at the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle. His insight gave clues to define the “ milieu intérieur”, later known as “homeostasis”, and grasp the brain complexity. Bernard followed and surpassed his master François Magendie who also fought against dogmas and laid the foundations of experimental medicine, and its main heinous tool – vivisection. Bernard created the methodological bases of experimental medicine, and collected honors as a renowned researcher.
Em suas pesquisas, Claude Bernard (1813-1878) seguiu dois caminhos principais: o estudo fisiológico e químico da digestão e da função hepática; a seção experimental de nervos e os estudos sobre nervos simpáticos. Estudos sobre curare, por exemplo, foram de interesse duradouro. Suas profundas criatividade mental e habilidade manual, além da qualidade metodológica, conduziram às suas experiências e descobertas, principalmente no Collège de France. Seus interesses sobre temas epistemológicos mais amplos foram conduzidos na Sorbonne e, posteriormente, no Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle. Seu discernimento deu subsídios para definir o “ milieu intérieur ”, mais tarde conhecido como “homeostase”, e para ajudar a compreender a complexidade do cérebro. Bernard seguiu e superou seu mestre François Magendie. Este também lutou contra dogmas e lançou os fundamentos da medicina experimental, utilizando sua principal ferramenta hedionda – a vivissecção. Bernard ampliou estes estudos e criou as bases metodológicas da medicina experimental, tendo colecionado honrarias como renomado pesquisador.
Subject(s)
History, 19th Century , Neurology/history , France , Neurophysiology/history , Sympathetic Nervous System/physiologyABSTRACT
Authors studied how Claude Bernard, the first founder of experimental medicine, contributed significantly to establishment of modernism and influenced European modern culture. Authors first studied his views on modernity, comparing with Descartes and Magendie, and on the similarity between "Experimental medicine" and the European literature in the 19th century. Bernard was not exclusively against vitalism, but the dogmatic misuse of vitalism. His objective thinking could be a useful model for the authors, who considered science to be an origin of modernity in literature of naturalism. Especially, Emile Zola was strongly influenced by Bernard's "An introduction to the study of Experimental medicine" and published "Experimental novel," a manifesto of naturalism. Although Bernard's experimental methodology and determinism deeply influenced modern European culture, the relationship between his Experimental medicine and modernism have not been fully investigated yet. His experimental medicine also needs to be discussed from the ecological viewpoints. His anthropo-centrism was unique since he emphasized any human theory could not surpass the principle of nature. Conventional anthropo-centrism claims that human beings are superior enough to own and govern the nature. And Bernard's the necessary determinism contains the ecological principle that all life forms and inanimate objects are organically related and intertwined to each other, irrespectively of their usefulness for the human beings. Although there were some ethical debates related to his medical experiments on living bodies of animal, his strict principle to perform experiments only after animal or human body died was worth considering as an effort to sustain ecological viewpoints. He was also unique in terms of being realistic and candid about his situation which was limited by the 19th century's scientific and medical development. In conclusion, the significance of convergence of literature and medical science in Experimental medicine and the importance of Bernard's ecological viewpoints, need to be further studied in the field of medical history.
Subject(s)
Animals , Humans , Ecology , Human Body , Photosensitizing Agents , Silanes , Thinking , VitalismABSTRACT
Claude Bernard, a French physiologist in the nineteenth century, strove to establish experimental physiology as a medical branch and scientific field. In 1854, he started his lecture series on general physiology at the Paris Faculty of Sciences, which was continued at the National Museum of Natural History since 1869 when Bernard's chair was transferred from the Faculty to the Museum. At the Museum, Bernard titled his lecture series the "Phenomena of Life Common to Animals and Plants," which revealed the main characteristic of his general physiology. At that time, physiology was generally considered a medical science which dealt only with the human body. Bernard, on the other hand, came to have the idea that physiology could study the functions of plant, animal, and human bodies in the same manner. Bernard's lectures on general physiology had two distinct phases. At Sorbonne, general physiology was a rather speculative theoretical system. It was mainly because of the fact that he did not have a laboratory at the Faculty of Sciences. There, the lecture dealt only with animal functions, and he had no concern for plant physiology at all. After he moved to the Museum, significant changes occurred. In the new laboratory, general physiology was transformed into a truly experimental science, which dealt with both animals and plants. Protoplasm, a physiological basic unit, replaced tissue, which was basically an anatomical unit that fell short of explaining physiological phenomena. The Museum of Natural History played an important role in this transformation. At the museum, zoologists, botanists, and physiologists worked together, and the peculiar natural history tradition of the institution enabled scientists to study animals and plants at the same time. Although there existed some conflicts between experimentalists and naturalists, Bernard could wisely figure out the problem by asserting that the role of a physiologist was to disclose, by experimentation, the fundamental principles that lay behind the superficial facts of life that were already discovered by natural historians. At the Museum, Bernard could break down the distinction between the animal and plant kingdoms in the domain of experimental physiology, and it can perhaps be considered a step toward the formation of the general science of biology.
Subject(s)
Humans , Biomedical Research/history , France , History, 19th Century , Physiology/historyABSTRACT
The only extant version of the first lecture course given by Claude Bernard on Experimental Physiology during the winter period of 1847-48 in Collège de France, substituting Magendie, is presented herein. The prominent Paris-graduated physician from Uruguay, Teodoro M. Vilardebó, attended the 46 lectures, wrote them down and transcribed them into a manuscript that he brought back to and kept in Montevideo in 1853. Mañé-Garzón uncovered it in 1987. These Bernards lectures review practically all physiology at the beginning of his career, while in later courses, he covered selected themes of experimental physiology and medicine and general scientific subjects at greater depth. Comparison of Bernards initial course with his later ones illustrates general physiologys progress in the more than 35 years of his successful scientific life. The manuscript sheds new light into Bernards scientific activity and personality.
Se presenta la única versión existente del primer curso sobre Fisiología Experimental dictado, en sustitución de Magendie, por Claude Bernard en el invierno 1847-1848 en el Collège de France. El destacado médico uruguayo graduado en París, Teodoro M. Vilardebó, asistió a las 46 lecciones, tomó apuntes y los transcribió a un manuscrito que trajo de vuelta en 1853 y conservó en Montevideo. Mañé-Garzón lo descubrió en 1987. Estas lecciones de Bernard revelan prácticamente toda la fisiología de comienzos de su carrera, mientras en cursos posteriores cubrió en mayor profundidad tópicos selectos de la fisiología y la medicina experimentales, así como temas científicos generales. La comparación del curso inicial de Bernard con otros posteriores ilustra el progreso de la fisiología general durante los más de 35 años de su exitosa vida científica. El manuscrito vierte nueva luz acerca de la actividad científica y la personalidad de Bernard.
Apresenta-se a única versão existente do primeiro curso sobre Fisiología Experimental ditado, em sustituição de Magendie, por Claude Bernard no inverno 1847-1848 no Collège de France. O destacado médico uruguaio graduado em París, Teodoro M. Vilardebó, assistiu às 46 lições, anotou e os transcreveu a um manuscrito que trouxe de volta en 1853 e conservou em Montevideo. Mañé-Garzón o descobriu em 1987. Estas lições de Bernard revelam práticamente toda a fisiologia do princípio da sua carreira, enquanto que em cursos posteriores cubriu em maior profundidade tópicos seletos da fisiologia e a medicina experimentais, assim como temas científicos gerais. A comparação do curso inicial de Bernard com outros posteriores ilustra o progresso da fisiologia geral durante mais de 35 anos de sua exitosa vida científica. O manuscrito verte nova luz sobre da atividade científica e a personalidade de Bernard.