A Modern History of ‘Imperial Medicine’ Surrounding Hansen's Disease: Strategies to Manage Public Opinion in Modern Japanese Media / 의사학

The purpose of this study is to understand the reality of imperial medicine by exploring the strategic attitude of the Japanese authority targeting the public who were not patients of Hansen's disease. For this purpose, this study examines the mass media data related to Hansen's disease published in Korea and Japan during the Japanese colonial rule. Research on Hansen's disease can be divided into medical, sociohistorical, social welfare, and human rights approach. There are medical studies and statistics on the dissemination of medical information about Hansen's disease and management measures, the history of the management of the disease, guarantee of the rights of the patients and the welfare environment, and studies on the autobiographical, literary writings and oral statements on the life and psychological conflicts of the patients. Among existing research, the topics of the study on Hansen's disease under the Japanese colonial rule include the history of the Sorokdo Island Sanatorium, investigation on the forced labor of the patients in the island, human rights violations against the patients, oral memoirs of the patients and doctors who practiced at that time. All of these studies are important achievements regarding the research on the patients. An important study of Hansen's disease in modern Japan is the work of Hujino Utaka, which introduces the isolation of and discrimination against the patients of Hansen's disease. Hujino Utaka's study examines the annihilation of people with infectious diseases in Japan and its colonies by the imperial government, which was the consequence of the imperial medical policies, and reports on the isolation of Hansen's disease patients during the war. Although these researches are important achievements in the study of Hansen's disease in modernity, their focus has mainly been on the history of isolation and exploitation in the Sorokdo Island Sanatorium and discrimination against the patients within the sanatorium, which was controlled by the director of the sanatorium. Consequently, the research tends to perceive the problem within the frame of antagonism between the agent of imperialism and the victims of exploitation by the hands of imperialism. Hence, it has limitations in that it has not fully addressed the problem of the people who were not Hansen's disease patients and as such, existed somewhere in between the two extremes in the process of administering medicine under the imperial rule. The purpose of this study is to identify the direction of imperial medicine in the history of Hansen's disease in Japan and to comprehend the characteristics of policy on Hansen's disease developed by Mitsuda Kensuke, who was behind the policy of imperial medicine, and examine the process of imperial medicine reaching out to the people (of Japan and its colonies). To achieve the goal, this study explores how the agent of imperial medicine gain the favor the public, who are not Hansen's disease patients, by means of the mass media. Specifically, this paper examines data in the Japanese language related to Korean patients of Hansen's disease including the mass media data on Hansen's disease in the source book titled The Collection of Data on Hansen's Disease in Joseon under the Colonial Rule(8 volumes) compiled by Takio Eiji, which has not been studied until now. It also reviews the cultural and popular magazines published in Japan and Joseon at that time.

The Japanese Colonial Medicine as Seen Through the Life of Fujita Tsuguakira / 의사학

Fujita Tsuguakira was a man who established Jahyeuiwon, a governmental medical facility, during the Residency-General Period and took over the presidency of a committee in the Japanese Government-General of Chosun after Chosun was annexed to Japanese. In addition, he is a man well qualified to be placed on the top of the list when discussing the Japanese colonial medicine in Chosun, considering his personal history of getting evolved in the colonial rule of Taiwan for seven years as an army surgeon. He led the colonial medicine in Chosun for nine years before and after the Japanese annexation of Korea. He was engaged in almost all the areas related to the colonial medicine such as anti-cholera projects, Hansung Sanitation Union, Deahan Hospital, Chosun Chongdokbu Hospital, Jahyeuiwon, medical schools affiliated to the Japanese Government-General of Chosun. In all respects, his life was in sync with the expansionist strategies of Imperial Japan. Especially, his deeds in Chosun was an "active aid to the instructions" from Army Minister Terauchi Masatake" as Sato Kozo testifies. Fujita was chosen by the military, and so he faithfully served the role given from it. The rewards that he received form the military attest to this fact. He took the position of Surgeon General in Army Medical Service on September, 1912, the top place that an army surgeon could hold. The position was first given to the officer who worked outside Japan proper, and he was the only army surgeon with no doctorial degree to receive such title except for Ishiguro Tadanori who was the first army surgeon in Japan. To sum up, Fujita was not a "doctor" but a "military officer". His walk of life mainly lay in the role of an aider adjusted to the ups and downs and the speeds of the plans of Imperial Japan to invade the continent. Therefore, the Japanese colonial medicine controlled by such man as Fujita in Chosun was inevitably studded with the military things. As a chief in the army medicine, what was important to him was the hospitals for managing the armed troops and projects for preventing infectious disease that could threaten the military sanitation. As a result, the medical service for those under the colonial rule was naturally put on the back burner. This study was conducted mainly based on Fujita's memoirs called Army Surgeon General Fujita Tsuguakira (1943), and accordingly it would be not without limitations. However, as he is a man who cannot be put aside when discussing the Japanese colonial medicine in Chosun, the records by this study of his life and past activities are expected to give no small amount of contribution to these discussions.

Public health and tropical modernity: the combat against sleeping sickness in Portuguese Guinea, 1945-1974 / Saúde pública e modernidade tropical: o combate à doença do sono na Guiné Portuguesa, 1945-1974

Until the establishment of the “Commission for the study of and combat against sleeping sickness” (Missão de estudo e combate à doença do sono) in 1945, underfunded and understaffed health services had not been a priority for the colonial administration in Portuguese Guinea. The Commission not only implemented endemic disease control in the territory under the auspices of metropolitan institutions, but also provided preventive public healthcare to the local population. Its relative success in reducing the negative impact of Human African Trypanosomiasis turned the colony into an apparent model of tropical modernity. In the process, the local evolution of the disease was marginalized, despite the tacit but contested recognition by some health professionals of the role of popular healthcare.

Os serviços de saúde que sofreram de uma crónica falta de recursos humanos e materiais nunca foram uma prioridade para a administração colonial na Guiné Portuguesa até a criação da Missão de Estudo e Combate à Doença do Sono em 1945. Além de introduzir o controlo de doenças endémicas sob a tutela de instituições metropolitanas, a Missão também providenciou cuidados preventivos de saúde pública para as populações locais. O sucesso relativo da redução do impacto nocivo da tripanossomíase africana parece ter transformado a colónia num modelo de modernidade tropical. Porém, as trajetórias locais da doença foram marginalizadas, apesar do reconhecimento tácito mas contestado por profissionais de saúde do papel de cuidados populares de saúde.

Racism of "Blood" and Colonial Medicine: Blood Group Anthropology Studies at Keijo Imperial University Department of Forensic Medicine / 의사학

This paper attempts to explore implications of Colonial medicine's Blood Type Studies, concerning the characteristics and tasks of racism in the Japanese Colonial Empire. Especially, it focuses on the Blood Group Anthropology Studies at Keijo Imperial University Department of Forensic Medicine. In Colonial Korea, the main stream of Blood Type Studies were Blood Group Anthropology Studies, which place Korean people who was inferior to Japanese people in the geography of the race on the one hand, but on the other, put Koreans as a missing link between the Mongolian and the Japanese for fulfillment of the Japanese colonialism, that is, assimilationist ideology. Then, Compared to the Western medicine and Metropole medicine of Japan, How differentiated was this tendency of Colonial Medicine from them? In this paper, main issues of Blood Group Anthropology Studies and its colonial implications are examined.

A History of Malaria in Modern Korea 1876-1945 / 의사학

Although it is not certain when malaria began to appear in Korea, malaria is believed to have been an endemic disease from ancient times. It was Dr. H. N. Allen (1858-1932) who made the first description and diagnosis of malaria in terms of Western medicine. In his first year report (1885) of Korean Government Hospital he mentioned malaria as the most prevalent disease. Very effective anti-malarial drug quinine was imported and it made great contribution in treating malaria. After Japan had annexed Korea in 1910, policies for public health system were fundamentally revised. Japan assumed control of Korean medical institutions and built high-quality Western hospitals for the health care of Japanese residents. The infectious diseases which were under special surveillance were cholera, typhoid fever, dysentery, typhus, scarlet fever, smallpox, and paratyphoid fever. Among chronic infectious diseases tuberculosis and leprosy were those under special control. Malaria, however, was not one of these specially controlled infectious diseases although it was widely spread throughout the peninsula. But serious studies on malaria were carried out by Japanese medical scientists. In particular, a Japanese parasitologist Kobayasi Harujiro(1884-1969) carried out extensive studies on human parasites, including malaria, in Korea. According to his study, most of the malaria in Korea turned out to be tertian fever. In spite of its high prevalence, malaria did not draw much attention from the colonial authorities and no serious measure was taken since tertian fever is a mild form of malaria caused by Plasmodium vivax and is not so much fatal as tropical malaria caused by P. falciparum. And tertian malaria was easily controlled by taking quinine. Although the majority of malaria in Korea was tertian fever, other types were not absent. Quartan fever was not rarely reported in 1930s. The attitude of colonial authorities toward malaria in Korea was contrasted with that in Taiwan. After Japan had set out to colonize Taiwan as a result of Sino-Japanese war, malaria in Taiwan was a big obstacle to the colonization process. Therefore, a lot of medical scientists were asked to engage the malaria research in order to handle health problems in colonized countries caused by malaria. Unlike the situation in Taiwan, malaria in Korea did not cause a serious health problem as in Taiwan. However, its risk was not negligible. In 1933 there were almost 130,000 malaria patients in Korea and 1,800 patients among them died of malaria. The Japanese Government General took measures to control malaria especially during the 1930s and the number of patients decreased. However, as Japan engaged in the World War II, the general hygienic state of the society worsened and the number of malarial patients increased. The worsened situation remains the same after Liberation (1945) and during the Korean war (1950-53).

Contexto político y económico del surgimiento de la salud pública moderna en el periodo 1872-1914 / Political and economic context at the beginning of modern public health in 1872-1914

Este artículo estudia el periodo denominado por los historiadores como el gran siglo XIX o siglo XIX largo, que comprende todo el siglo XIX más las décadas que antecedieron y acompañaron a la Primera Guerra Mundial y que corresponde con la expansión y consolidación del imperialismo clásico. Desde la perspectiva de la salud pública, es importante por la transición de la higiene pública a la moderna salud pública, caracterizada ya hacia 1880 por el advenimiento de la teoría bacteriológica y su influencia en las medidas de sanidad estatal. El surgimiento de la salud pública y la medicina estatal en América Latina es una consecuencia lógica de la instauración de modos de producción capitalista en los países del continente, ya que las relaciones sociales y económicas de los individuos con el Estado fueron duramente afectadas y transformadas por los procesos de incipiente industrialización y consolidación del modelo de producción capitalista, lo cual implicó la consolidación de un cuerpo burocrático y un aumento de la intervención en la vida de los ciudadanos por la vía de las políticas sociales. En Colombia, la burguesía en el poder respondió a los problemas de salud pública (apoyada por la Fundación Rockefeller), como las distintas epidemias de viruela, cólera, malaria o fiebre amarilla, que recorrieron con mayor o menor severidad el país desde los litorales Atlántico o Pacífico hasta el interior con el riesgo de diezmar las poblaciones obreras y afectar el intercambio comercial del país con Estados Unidos.

This article analyzes the period that historians call the Big or Long XIX Century, which encompasses, besides the XIX century, the preceding decades and the decades of World War I. It corresponds to the expansion and consolidation of classic imperialism. From the public health perspective, the Big XIX century is important with the beginning of bacteriological theory in 1880 and the transition from hygiene to public health with governments controlling sanitary. The appearance of state medicine in the Latin American region is a logical consequence of the implementation of capitalist modes of production given that the social and economic relationships between the people and the state were harshly affected and transformed by the incipient industrialization and consolidation of the capitalist production model. The state apparatus consolidated a bureaucratic body and increased its intervention in citizens’ everyday lives via social policies. In the case of Colombia, the beginning of hygiene practices and, later on, of bacteriology occurred in particular ways. This can be observed along the XIX century, a period in which the bourgeoisie in power responded, supported by the Rockefeller Foundation, mostly to episodic events such as the smallpox, cholera, malaria or yellow fever epidemics, which run through the country with different degrees of severity from both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts towards the interior of the country, threatening to reduce the population of workers and to affect the commercial exchange of the country with the United States.