Aplicación de La Teoría de Florence Nightingale en los servicios de salud en Cuba / Application of the Florence Nightingale Theory in health services in Cuba / Aplicação da Teoria Florence Nightingale nos serviços de salude em Cuba

RESUMEN El pensamiento filosófico de Florence Nightingale está vigente aún en nuestros tiempos y, para poder incursionar en ella con éxito, se hace necesario conocer cómo surgió y evolucionó a través de la historia. La originalidad del proyecto de Nightingale le dio una nueva directriz a la ciencia del cuidado del ser humano, además de diferenciar lo que era medicina de enfermería concebía que las propias enfermeras formaran a las estudiantes de enfermería mediante programas específicos de formación, haciendo hincapié tanto en las intervenciones de enfermería hospitalarias como extra hospitalarias, para el mantenimiento y prevención de la salud, tanto del individuo como de las familias. La concepción filosófica de Nigtingale en los servicios de salud cubano y su repercusión en el paciente son fuente de estudio para la formación de nuevos profesionales de enfermería. La universalización y atemporalidad de sus conceptos aun hoy son extensibles a todas las instalaciones hospitalarias de la actualidad.

ABSTRACT The philosophical thought of Florence Nightingale is still valid in our times and, to be able to enter it successfully, it is necessary to know how it emerged and evolved through history. The originality of the Nightingale project gave a new guideline to the science of caring for the human being, in addition to differentiating what nursing medicine was, it conceived that the nurses themselves trained nursing students through specific training programs, emphasizing both hospital and extra-hospital nursing interventions for the maintenance and prevention of health, both for the individual and for the families. The philosophical conception of Nigtingale in the Cuban health services and its repercussion on the patient are a source of study for the training of new nursing professionals. The universalization and timelessness of its concepts even today can be extended to all hospital facilities today.

RESUMO O pensamento filosófico de Florence Nightingale ainda é válido em nossos tempos e, para poder inseri-lo com sucesso, é necessário saber como ele surgiu e evoluiu ao longo da história. A originalidade do projeto Nightingale deu uma nova diretriz à ciência do cuidar do ser humano, além de diferenciar o que era a medicina de enfermagem, concebeu que as próprias enfermeiras formavam os alunos de enfermagem por meio de programas de formação específicos, com ênfase tanto hospitalar quanto extra-hospitalar intervenções de enfermagem para a manutenção e prevenção da saúde, tanto do indivíduo quanto da família. A concepção filosófica de Nigtingale nos serviços de saúde cubanos e sua repercussão no paciente são fonte de estudos para a formação de novos profissionais de enfermagem. A universalização e atemporalidade de seus conceitos ainda hoje podem ser estendidas a todas as instalações hospitalares de hoje.

Revisiting cognitive load theory: second thoughts and unaddressed questions / Revisitando a teoria da carga cognitiva: pensamentos secundários e perguntas não endereçadas

In cognitive load theory (CLT), learning is the development of cognitive schemas in a long-term memory with no known limits and can happen only if our limited working memory can process new information presented and the amount of information that does not contribute to learning is low. According to this theory, learning is optimal when instructional support is decreased going from worked examples via completion problem to autonomous problem solving and learners do not benefit from practicing retrieval with complex content. However, studies on productive failure and retrieval practice have provided clear evidence against these two guidelines. In this article, issues with CLT and research inspired by this theory, which remain largely ignored among cognitive load theorists but have likely contributed to these contradictory findings, are discussed. This article concludes that these issues should make us question the usefulness of CLT in health science education, medical education and other complex domains, and presents recommendations for both educational practice and future research on the matter.

Na teoria da carga cognitiva (CLT), a aprendizagem é o desenvolvimento de esquemas cognitivos em uma memória de longo prazo sem limites conhecidos e pode acontecer apenas se nossa limitada memória de trabalho puder processar novas informações apresentadas e a quantidade de informações que não contribui para a aprendizagem é baixo. De acordo com essa teoria, o aprendizado é ideal quando diminui o suporte instrucional, passando de exemplos trabalhados, via problemas de conclusão, para uma solução autônoma de problemas, e os alunos não se beneficiam praticando a recuperação com conteúdo complexo. No entanto, estudos sobre falhas produtivas e práticas de recuperação forneceram evidências claras contra essas duas diretrizes. Neste artigo, são discutidos problemas com a CLT e com pesquisas inspiradas nessa teoria, que permanecem amplamente ignorados entre os teóricos da carga cognitiva, mas provavelmente contribuíram para essas descobertas contraditórias. Este artigo conclui que essas questões devem nos fazer questionar a utilidade da CLT na educação em ciências da saúde, educação médica e outros domínios complexos e apresenta recomendações para a prática educacional e para pesquisas futuras sobre o assunto.

Manifestations and outcomes of leptospirosis during local outbreaks in high endemic districts of Sri Lanka: A retrospective multi-center study

Objective: To determine the clinical presentations and disease outcomes of suspected and confirmed cases of leptospirosis from 3 high endemic districts of Sri Lanka, during outbreaks reported between 2013 and 2017. Methods: The retrospective multi-center study was carried out during 2013-2017 in 5 selected hospitals representing 3 high endemic districts in Sri Lanka. Clinically suspected leptospirosis patients were recruited according to the Communicable Disease Epidemiology Profile Sri Lanka, WHO. Leptospirosis was confirmed by either single microscopic agglutination test titre 1: 400 or by positive polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test result. Results: Out of 372 clinically suspected cases, 29.00% were confirmed as leptospirosis cases by either microscopic agglutination test (50.00%) or positive polymerase chain reaction (52.77%) and 12.90% were presumptively identified as leptospirosis. Clinical symptoms (headache, vomiting, jaundice and dyspnoea) and variations in haematological parameters (haemoglobin, platelet count) and biochemical parameters (serum creatinine, serum urea, serum bilirubin and C-reactive protein) were associated with confirmed leptospirosis (P<0.05). Acute kidney injury, meningitis, myocarditis, pulmonary haemorrhage and acute liver failure was seen among 21.30%, 12.04%, 6.48%, 6.48%, 5.56%, respectively with 4.63% fatality among the leptospirosis confirmed patients. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value of the case definition of Ministry of Health, Sri Lanka were 96.29%, 9.09%, 31.13%and 85.71%, respectively, when benchmarked against either positive polymerase chain reaction or microscopic agglutination test as the gold standard. Conclusions: Acute kidney injury is the predominant complication observed among the leptospirosis confirmed patients. However, pulmonary haemorrhage is predominantly associated with mortality. The case definition of Ministry of Health, Sri Lanka is found to have higher sensitivity and enabled the screening of all probable cases of leptospirosis.

Manifestations and outcomes of leptospirosis during local outbreaks in high endemic districts of Sri Lanka: A retrospective multi-center study

Objective: To determine the clinical presentations and disease outcomes of suspected and confirmed cases of leptospirosis from 3 high endemic districts of Sri Lanka, during outbreaks reported between 2013 and 2017. Methods: The retrospective multi-center study was carried out during 2013-2017 in 5 selected hospitals representing 3 high endemic districts in Sri Lanka. Clinically suspected leptospirosis patients were recruited according to the Communicable Disease Epidemiology Profile Sri Lanka, WHO. Leptospirosis was confirmed by either single microscopic agglutination test titre 1: 400 or by positive polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test result. Results: Out of 372 clinically suspected cases, 29.00% were confirmed as leptospirosis cases by either microscopic agglutination test (50.00%) or positive polymerase chain reaction (52.77%) and 12.90% were presumptively identified as leptospirosis. Clinical symptoms (headache, vomiting, jaundice and dyspnoea) and variations in haematological parameters (haemoglobin, platelet count) and biochemical parameters (serum creatinine, serum urea, serum bilirubin and C-reactive protein) were associated with confirmed leptospirosis (P<0.05). Acute kidney injury, meningitis, myocarditis, pulmonary haemorrhage and acute liver failure was seen among 21.30%, 12.04%, 6.48%, 6.48%, 5.56%, respectively with 4.63% fatality among the leptospirosis confirmed patients. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value of the case definition of Ministry of Health, Sri Lanka were 96.29%, 9.09%, 31.13%and 85.71%, respectively, when benchmarked against either positive polymerase chain reaction or microscopic agglutination test as the gold standard. Conclusions: Acute kidney injury is the predominant complication observed among the leptospirosis confirmed patients. However, pulmonary haemorrhage is predominantly associated with mortality. The case definition of Ministry of Health, Sri Lanka is found to have higher sensitivity and enabled the screening of all probable cases of leptospirosis.

Hígado: nuevas definiciones y propuestas para SILAT-FCAT-IFAA / Liver: new definitions and proposals for SILAT-FCAT-IFAA

Presentamos definiciones y propuestas en relación a la anatomía del hígado basados en los resultados de estudiar 286 hígados humanos de ambos sexos, diferentes razas y edades que van desde fetos hasta octogenarios, mediante disección, inyección acrílica, radiología y reconstrucciones tomográficas tridimensionales. Definimos: 1) Segmento portal, 2) Pedículo portal, pedículo segmentario, 3) Fisuras portales, 4) Porta hepática o hilio hepático inferior, 5) Grupos de las venas hepáticas de retorno, 6) Trayecto de la vena hepática izquierda y 7) Conductos biliares aberrantes. Proponemos: 1) Segmento V único formante de la división medial derecha, 2) Siete ramas portales segmentarias terminales para siete segmentos, 3) Irrigación arterial segmentaria, 4) Formación de los conductos biliares, 5) Cambiar la denominación de fisura portal principal por fisura portal intermedia, 6) Incluir dentro del concepto "Fisura umbilical" a la fisura del ligamento redondo y la fisura del ligamento venoso, 7) Fisuras portales horizontales, 8) Venas que drenan en la Cava inferior, 9) No denominar Porción posterior del hígado (A05.8.01.043) al lóbulo caudado.

We present definitions and proposals in relation to the anatomy of the liver based on our investigation using dissection, acrylic injection, tomographic and radiological studies of 286 human livers of sexes, different races and ages ranging from fetuses to octogenarians. We define: 1) Portal segment, 2) Portal pedicle, segmental pedicle, 3) Portal fissures, 4) Porta Hepatis or Lower hepatic hilum, 5) Groups of hepatic return veins, 6) Left hepatic vein pathway and 7) Aberrant bile duct. We propose: 1) Segment V only formant of the right medial division, 2) Seven terminal segmental portal branches, 3) Segmental arterial irrigation, 4) Formation of bile ducts, 5) Change the denomination of main portal fissure by intermediate portal fissure , 6) Include within the concept "umbilical fissure" the fissure of the round ligament and fissure of the venous ligament, 7) Horizontal portal fissures, 8) Veins that drain in the inferior vena Cava, 9) Do not call the posterior portion of the liver (A05.8.01.043) to the caudate lobe.

Development Of Clinical Pathway For Non-Surgical Management Of Chronic Periodontitis

The vast range of treatment protocols available for non-surgical management of chronic periodontitis can affect the consistency of clinical decision-making for dentists. This is further compounded by the different case definitions for periodontitis used in various clinical studies. The aim of this paper is to describe the steps taken leading to an expert consensus of periodontitis case definition followed by the development of a clinical pathway for managing chronic periodontitis. To assist reaching a consensus on a standard case definition of periodontitis for clinical research, a roundtable discussion was held involving 13 dental specialists and researchers from universities and the Ministry of Health. Participants discussed clinical experiences in identifying periodontitis and related issues based on scientific evidence. A further expert panel discussion consisting of 8 periodontists was conducted at another session to review current management practices and evidence-based practices available from the literature and generated a clinical pathway for non-surgical management of periodontitis. The case definition derived from the roundtable discussion recognises differentiation of selected clinical parameters and their thresholds as well as the extent and severity of the periodontitis. As for the newly developed clinical pathway, experts collectively defined the appropriate goals to satisfy the multidimensional needs of the patients which are translated into detailed elements of care, including the sequence of events of patients at each dental visit over time. The agreed case definition will facilitate selection and recruitment of cases for clinical studies while the clinical pathway can be used to reduce variations between clinicians.

Development Of Clinical Pathway For Non-Surgical Management Of Chronic Periodontitis

@#The vast range of treatment protocols available for non-surgical management of chronic periodontitis can affect the consistency of clinical decision-making for dentists. This is further compounded by the different case definitions for periodontitis used in various clinical studies. The aim of this paper is to describe the steps taken leading to an expert consensus of periodontitis case definition followed by the development of a clinical pathway for managing chronic periodontitis. To assist reaching a consensus on a standard case definition of periodontitis for clinical research, a roundtable discussion was held involving 13 dental specialists and researchers from universities and the Ministry of Health. Participants discussed clinical experiences in identifying periodontitis and related issues based on scientific evidence. A further expert panel discussion consisting of 8 periodontists was conducted at another session to review current management practices and evidence-based practices available from the literature and generated a clinical pathway for non-surgical management of periodontitis. The case definition derived from the roundtable discussion recognises differentiation of selected clinical parameters and their thresholds as well as the extent and severity of the periodontitis. As for the newly developed clinical pathway, experts collectively defined the appropriate goals to satisfy the multidimensional needs of the patients which are translated into detailed elements of care, including the sequence of events of patients at each dental visit over time. The agreed case definition will facilitate selection and recruitment of cases for clinical studies while the clinical pathway can be used to reduce variations between clinicians.

Could the responses for different pathogen with multiple affecting predisposing factors be similar?——the heterogeneity or diversity of sepsis / 中国小儿急救医学

The heterogeneity and diversity of sepsis,evaluation for the role of definitions and related guidelines,and the key evidence for the diagnosis and therapies of sepsis are being paid close attention to.Here are the discussions for the heterogeneity or diversity of sepsis effected from etiology,personality,gut-derived problem,predisposing factors or premorbid conditions,co-intervention,with comparing the positive and negative changes on some of the recommendations,suggestions,techniques,medicine,and therapies amongst different editions of International Consensus Definition for Sepsis and Septic Shock,and International Guidelines for Management of Sepsis and Septic Shock in Surviving Sepsis Campaign or other related special procedures.

Advances in diagnosis and treatment of invasive pulmonary fungal infections in children / 中华实用儿科临床杂志

The prevalence of invasive pulmonary fungal infections (IPFIs) has increased in children,which becomes a clinical concern in recent years.With the availabilities of new diagnostic tools for fungi and more antifungal agents,children with IPFIs may achieve a much earlier diagnosis and treatment.This article reviewed the development of laboratory tests,diagnostic criteria,treatment strategies and commonly used antifungal agents for IPFIs.

Necessity and importance of amendment of the key concepts of laboratory animals in China / 中国比较医学杂志

Laboratory animal industry forms an independent, comprehensive system responsible for the production, use and management of laboratory animals.Great advances have been made in this field in China over the more than thirty years of development.However, due to the great development and changes during this long time, there are also some issues which need to be amended and changed.To compare the concepts of experimental animals in China and developed countries such as USA.The key concepts on the laboratory animals are not well or clearly defined in the regulatory documents in China, which hinder the healthy development and effective regulation in this field, as well as the care and use of laboratory animals in research and education.In this article, we discuss the necessity of timely amendment and standardization of the key concepts and definitions related to laboratory animals, and the importance and impact of the key concepts on the development of animal industry in China.

Psicoprofilaxis Obstétrica: actualización, definiciones y conceptos / Obstetric Psychoprophylaxis: update, definitions and concepts

La Psicoprofilaxis obstétrica (PPO), reconocida como una herramienta de prevención en la atención obstétrica, tiene un impacto positivo en la salud materna y perinatal. En un mundo globalizado, es necesario y conveniente uniformizar criterios, con la finalidad que el personal que integra el programa, pueda trabajar mejor, bajo los mismos conceptos, comprendiendo el mismo significado y objetivos de la PPO, para lograr un trabajo en equipo, con calidad y de esta manera, conseguir el máximo beneficio para las madres, bebés y su entorno. La unificación de definiciones y conceptos, servirá para lograr una gestión ágil y armoniosa en los aspectos técnicos, administrativos y clínicos. El presente artículo tiene como finalidad revisar y actualizar las definiciones y conceptos en PPO, para que sirva de instrumento de apoyo en la gestión y desarrollo de los programas de PPO tanto públicos como privados...

Obstetric Psychoprophylaxis (OPP), recognized as a prevention tool in obstetric care has a positive impact on maternal and perinatal health. In a globalized world, it is necessary and desirable to standardize criteria, in order that staff integrates the program can work better under the same concepts, understanding the very meaning and objectives of the OPP, for a team work with quality and there by achieve the maximum benefit for mothers, babies and their environment. Unifying definitions and concepts, serve to achieve a smooth and harmonious management in the technical, administrative and clinical aspects. This article aims to review and update the definitions and concepts in OPP, to serve as a support tool in the management and development of OPP programs both public and private...

Challenges In Determining Occupational Related Chronic Low Back Pain Among Employees: A Review Of The Literature

Chronic low back pain is a common preventable occupational health illness affecting most workers. Large amount of financial and benefit cost had been spent by the developed countries to prevent, treat and rehabilitate a large number of workers who are exposed to hazards that are attributed to low back pain. Efforts on primary prevention of low back pain had been challenging due to difficulties in affirming work- relatedness of chronic back pain among workers. As such, efforts have to be focused on existing literatures to propose acceptable variables to develop the definition of work- relatedness specific to chronic low back pain. Such identified variables or factors could be used to develop a set of criteria in defining work- related chronic back pain. Literature search using specific work- related and chronic low back pain key words were used. Comparable articles were judged and a summarized result was obtained. These variables could be grouped into individual characteristics, health behaviours, physical conditions at work, work organizations and ergonomic factors. With proper methodology and statistical analysis, tools could be developed to aid physicians in determining work- related chronic low back pain among employees.

Problems in Defi ning the Angle of Shoulder Axial Rotation / The Japanese Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine

Angles of the shoulder joint are usually defined in each of the sagittal, coronal, and horizontal planes passing through the center of the shoulder joint. One of the problems with this method is the difficulty of describing some positions of the shoulder joint such as the anterolaterally elevated position. In 2005, the International Society of Biomechanics proposed a recommendation on definitions of joint coordinate systems including the shoulder based on Euler/Cardan angles, which have often been used for the purpose of research on shoulder joint movement in daily activities. With this definition, however, it still remains impossible to define the angle of axial rotation in the hanging down position. Also, Codman's paradox, the phenomenon where the rotation angle of the shoulder changes after motions without axial rotation of the arm, remains unsolved. To solve these problems, a new method to define the angle of shoulder axial rotation, the non-singular method, has been proposed. This review describes the history and the problems of the methods used to define shoulder angles, and presents this new method of definition.

Basic genetics for dermatologists.

During the past few decades, advances in the field of molecular genetics have enriched us in understanding the pathogenesis of diseases, their identification, and appropriate therapeutic interventions. In the last 20 years, genetic basis of more than 350 monogenic skin diseases have been elucidated and is counting. The widespread use of molecular genetics as a tool in diagnosis is not practiced routinely due to genetic heterogenicity, limited access and low sensitivity. In this review, we have presented the very basics of genetics so as to enable dermatologists to have working understanding of medical genetics.

Academic training in social psychology in Brazil and South America / A formação em psicologia social no Brasil e na América do Sul

We analyze the social representations, theories, authors and metatheoretical assumptions more adopted on Social Psychology. 288 Social Psychology (SP) professors in South America participated; 149 were from Brazil. The results show a representation of SP objectified around four themes: the psychological SP (study of the interaction between individuals), the sociological SP (the study of socio-historical context), the SP of subjectivity (subjectivity studies) and SP of subjectification (studying the field of production of subjectivity). Regarding the theories and authors adopted in Brazil we have got a few responses; differently of the South American colleagues. These data indicate that a little clarity about the theoretical matrix of Social Psychology practice en Brazil. We discuss the results in their relation to the formation of SP in Brazil, arguing about the failure of the models that dichotomize the guidelines of Social Psychology in "psychological" vs. "sociological" assumptions.

Analisamos as representações sociais da psicologia social, teorias, autores e orientação metateórica mais adotadas. Participaram 288 professores de psicologia social (PS) da América do Sul; sendo 149 do Brasil. Os resultados evidenciam uma representação da PS objetivada em torno de quatro temas: a PS psicológica (estudo da interação entre indivíduos), a PS sociológica (estudo do contexto sociohistórico), a PS da subjetividade (estuda a subjetividade) e a PS dos processos de subjetivação (estuda o campo de produção das subjetivações). Em relação às teorias e autores mais adotados obtivemos no Brasil poucas respostas, os que respondem mencionaram abordagens. Já os colegas da América do Sul citam mais teorias e autores. Esses dados indicam que praticamos uma psicologia social de pouca clareza quanto à matriz teórica. Discutimos os resultados na sua relação com a formação em PS no Brasil, afirmando a insuficiência dos modelos que dicotomizam as orientações da psicologia social em "psicológica" vs. "sociológica".

Prevalence of Metabolic Syndrome Among Staff in a Malaysian Public University Based on Harmonised, International Diabetes Federation and National Cholesterol Education Program Definitions

Introduction: Metabolic syndrome (MetSyn) as defined by the latest Harmonised definition and the agreement between the Harmonised definition and other definitions is poorly studied among Malaysians. This study was conducted to determine and compare the prevalence of MetSyn according to the Harmonised, International Diabetes Federation (IDF) and National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP ATPIII) definitions among Malay staff of Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). Methods: Subjects aged between 20 to 65 years were recruited by convenient sampling. Waist circumference, blood pressure, lipid profiles and fasting plasma glucose levels were assessed. The agreement between the Harmonised and other definitions was determined by Kappa statistics. Results: A total of 227 subjects with a mean ± SD age of 37.9±9.6 years participated in the study. The overall prevalence of MetSyn was 38.3%, 38.8% and 33.5% according to Harmonised, IDF and NCEP ATP III definitions, respectively. Generally, men had higher prevalence of MetSyn than women. The prevalence increased with age in both genders with a more progressive trend in women. Men in the age group of 20-39 years had a high prevalence of metabolic syndrome. A strong agreement was found between the Harmonised and the IDF definitions (Kappa index=0.991), and between the Harmonised and the NCEP ATP III definitions (Kappa index=0.857). Conclusion: Regardless of definitions used, the prevalence of metabolic syndrome in the study, especially in young men, was high and warrants further investigation. The Harmonised definition is suitable for diagnosing metabolic syndrome in any population with similar sociodemographic characteristics.

Definition of Severe Refractory Asthma / 대한내과학회지

Severe refractory asthma is a group of asthmatic patients showing heterogeneous phenotypes with frequent exacerbations and progressive airway remodeling despite high levels of therapy. Studies of severe asthma is difficult not only because of diverse pathogenesis, difficulty in translating pre-clinical human and animal models to clinical trials, and absence of biomarkers that predict therapeutic efficacy but because of lack of consensus on precise definition and diagnostic criteria of severe asthma. Furthermore, the burden of severe asthma is considerably high, therefore, there has been an urgent need for researching strategies to overcome severe asthma. In conclusion, precise characterization, exact definition, and appropriate classification of severe asthma would be critical to improve management of this challenging disease and these efforts could help to develop novel therapeutic strategies.

Reporting Diarrhoea through a Vernacular Term in Quechua-speaking Settings of Rural Bolivia.

Field studies often use caregiver-reported diarrhoea and related symptoms to measure child morbidity. There are various vernacular terms to define diarrhoea that vary across the local cultural contexts. The relationship between vernacular definitions of diarrhoea and symptoms-based definitions is not well-documented. This paper describes the association of the vernacular Quechua term k’echalera with the symptoms-based standard definition of diarrhoea in rural Bolivian settings. During a cluster randomized trial in rural Bolivia, both signs and symptoms of diarrhoea and reports of k’echalera were collected for children aged less than five years. Reported k’echalera were found to be associated with important changes in stool frequency, consistency, and presence of blood and mucus. Reported k’echalera were highly related to three of four recorded categories of watery stool. The intermediate (milk-rice) stool consistency, which fits into the definition of watery stool, was not strongly related to k’echalera. Mucus in the stool was also associated with k’echalera; however, its presence in k’echalera-free days accounted for at least 50% of the possible false negatives. The sensitivity and specificity of the term k’echalera were estimated by Bayesian methods, allowing for both symptoms of diarrhoea and reports of k’echalera to be subject to diagnosis error. An average specificity of at least 97% and the sensitivity of at least 50% were obtained. The findings suggest that the use of k’echalera would identify fewer cases of diarrhoea than a symptom-based definition in rural Bolivia.

Viruses, definitions and reality

Viruses are known to be abundant, ubiquitous, and to play a very important role in the health and evolution of life organisms. However, most biologists have considered them as entities separate from the realm of life and acting merely as mechanical artifacts that can exchange genes between different organisms. This article reviews some definitions of life organisms to determine if viruses adjust to them, and additionally, considers new discoveries to challenge the present definition of viruses. Definitions of life organisms have been revised in order to validate how viruses fit into them. Viral factories are discussed since these mini-organelles are a good example of the complexity of viral infection, not as a mechanical usurpation of cell structures, but as a driving force leading to the reorganization and modification of cell structures by viral and cell enzymes. New discoveries such as the Mimivirus, its virophage and viruses that produce filamentous tails when outside of their host cell, have stimulated the scientific community to analyze the current definition of viruses. One way to be free for innovation is to learn from life, without rigid mental structures or tied to the past, in order to understand in an integrated view the new discoveries that will be unfolded in future research. Life processes must be looked from the complexity and trans-disciplinarity perspective that includes and accepts the temporality of the active processes of life organisms, their interdependency and interrelation among them and their environment. New insights must be found to redefine life organisms, especially viruses, which still are defined using the same concepts and knowledge of the fifties. Rev. Biol. Trop. 59 (3): 993-998. Epub 2011 September 01.

Los virus son abundantes, ubicuos, y juegan un papel muy importante en la salud y en la evolución de los organismos vivos. Sin embargo, la mayoría de los biólogos los siguen considerado como entidades separadas de la red de la vida y que actúan como meros artefactos mecánicos a la hora de intercambiar genes entre los diferentes organismos. Este artículo revisa varias definiciones de organismos vivos para determinar si los virus se ajustan a ellas, y adicionalmente, considera los nuevos descubrimientos que retan las definiciones actuales de los virus. La fábricas de virus son discutidas ya que estas mini-organelas son un buen ejemplo de la complejidad de las infecciones virales, no como una usurpación mecánica de las estructuras de la célula, pero como una fuerza vital que lleva a la reorganización y la modificación de las estructuras de las células por enzimas celulares y virales. Los nuevos descubrimientos como los Mimivirus, su virófago y virus que producen colas filamentosas cuando se encuentran fuera de la célula, han estimulado a la comunidad científica a analizar la definición actual de los virus. Para la innovación se debe estar libre de estructuras mentales rígidas o apegadas al pasado, para lograr comprender e integrar los nuevos descubrimientos que traerán las investigaciones futuras. Los procesos de la vida deben verse desde la perspectiva de la complejidad y la trans-disciplinariedad que incluye y acepta la temporalidad de los procesos activos de los organismos vivos y su interdependencia e interrelación entre ellos y su ambiente.

Participación política: concepto y modalidades / Political participation: concept and types

El voto ha sido por mucho tiempo la forma más habitual de participación política, aunque éste es sólo uno más entre los muchos recursos de los que dispone el sujeto para incidir en el mundo político. El repertorio político actual de los individuos hace necesaria una reflexión sobre la extensión y límites de la participación política. Por eso este trabajo propone discutir su concepto y modalidades a través de una revisión bibliográfica que analiza las definiciones que han prevalecido en los últimos 60 años así como de las formas que los distintos autores han identificado. Los estudios muestran la relación positiva entre la participación política convencional y el potencial de protesta o la contingencia de la participación democrática junto con la participación agresiva. La protesta política como estrategia compatible con procedimientos más convencionales habla de una complejidad que hace necesario sortear la dificultad de considerar a la participación política no convencional como un elemento más del abanico de acciones políticas de los sujetos. La revisión realizada permite plantear que aún cuando la distinción convencional - no convencional sigue siendo de gran utilidad, la participación política debe ser vista también como un complejo continuo con una multiplicidad de factores asociados.

Vote has been for long time the type of political participation which has received most consideration, even when it is just one of the different resources individuals have to influence in political world. Current individual political repertoire leads to a reflection on the extension and limits of political participation. This text proposes a discussion about it concepts and types through a bibliographical review which analyses the definitions that have prevailed and forms that authors have identified in the last 60 years. Studies show a positive relationship between conventional political participation and protest potential, and a contingency of democratic and aggressive participation. Political protest as a compatible strategy with more conventional procedures present a complexity which stress the necessity of drawing lots of the difficulty of considering non conventional political participation as a relevant element in persons political repertoire. Current review allows to point out that even when conventional and non conventional distinction is still useful, political participation has to be seen also as a complex continual with a multiplicity of associated factors.