Reliability and validity of Chinese version of Dietary Sodium Restriction Questionnaire in patients with chronic kidney disease / 中国实用护理杂志

Objective:To test the reliability and validity of the Chinese version of Dietary Sodium Restriction Questionnaire in patients with chronic kidney disease.Methods:From July 2020 to February 2021, a total of 120 patients with chronic kidney disease admitted to the Zhongda Hospital Affiliated to Southeast University were assessed with the Chinese version of Dietary Sodium Restriction Questionnaire, and its reliability and validity were analyzed.Results:Exploratory factor analysis showed that KMO value was 0.783, three common factors were extracted, namely attitude and subjective norms, perceptual behavior control and cognition, which could explain 58.83% of the total variation. Cronbach α coefficient of internal consistency was 0.777, and Cronbach α coefficient of three common factors were 0.849, 0.824 and 0.752 respectively. Six experts scored the questionnaire, the CVI of each item were 0.83-1.00, and the average CVI was 0.968. The correlation coefficient between each item and the total score were 0.322-0.648 ( P<0.01). Conclusions:The Chinese version of Dietary Sodium Restriction Questionnaire has good reliability and validity in the study of sodium restriction diet compliance of patients with chronic kidney disease, and can be used as a tool to evaluate the cognition, attitude and behavior of patients with chronic kidney disease.

Fatores associados ao consumo de sal na população adulta brasileira: Pesquisa Nacional de Saúde / Factors associated with salt intake in the Brazilian adult population: National Health Survey

Resumo O objetivo deste artigo é identificar os fatores associados ao consumo elevado de sal na população brasileira adulta. Estudo transversal com dados de 8.083 adultos da Pesquisa Nacional de Saúde (PNS, 2014/15). O consumo de sal foi baseado na estimativa de excreção urinária de sódio de 24 horas, calculada pela relação sódio/creatinina em amostra de urina casual. Considerou-se consumo elevado o quartil mais alto da distribuição. A relação entre consumo elevado de sal e fatores sociodemográficos, estilos de vida, morbidade e autoavaliação do estado de saúde foi analisada pelo cálculo das razões de prevalência brutas e ajustadas por idade e sexo. 28,1% apresentavam consumo estimado de sal maior que 10,56 g/dia. Estiveram positivamente associados ao consumo elevado de sal a presença de sobrepeso (Razão de Prevalência ajustada; IC95% - RPaj 1,23; 1,09-1,39), obesidade (RPaj 1,61; 1,43-1,83) e diabetes (RPaj 1,36; 1,17-1,58). Foram fatores de proteção o sexo feminino (RPaj 0,73; 0,66-0,80), escolaridade elevada (RPaj 0,88; 0,79-0,99), morar na região Norte e presença de doença renal crônica (RPaj 0,71; 0,56-0,90). O consumo de sal é elevado em todo o país e em todos os subgrupos da população, demandando ações coordenadas para seu enfrentamento.

Abstract This paper aims to identify the factors associated with high salt intake in the Brazilian adult population. This is a cross-sectional study with 8,083 adults participating in the National Health Survey (PNS, 2014/15). Salt intake was based on the estimation of 24-hour urinary sodium calculated from the sodium/creatinine ratio in spot urine samples. The highest quartile of the distribution was considered high salt intake. The relationship between high salt consumption and sociodemographic factors, lifestyles, morbidity, and self-rated health status was analyzed by calculating the crude prevalence ratios and the prevalence ratios adjusted for age and gender. Approximately 28.1% had an estimated salt intake higher than 10.56 g/day. Overweight (Adjusted Prevalence Ratio; 95%CI - PRadj 1.23; 1.09-1.39), obesity (PRadj 1.61; 1.43-1.83), and diabetes (PRadj 1.36; 1.17-1.58) were positively associated with high salt intake. Female gender (PRadj 0.73; 0.66-0.80), high schooling level (PRadj 0.88; 0.79-0.99), living in the North and chronic kidney disease (PRadj 0.71; 0.56-0.90) were protective factors. Salt consumption is elevated nationwide and in all population subgroups, requiring coordinated actions.

Prevalence of Undiagnosed Hypertension and Its Associated Factors Among the University Staff

@#Introduction: Hypertension is a public health concern that is associated with heart disease. This study aims to investigate the prevalence of undiagnosed hypertension and its associated factors among the staff in a private university in Selangor, Malaysia. Methods: 100 respondents participated in this cross-sectional study. Blood pressure, Body Mass Index (BMI), percentage body fat (%BF), visceral fat rating (VFR), and waist circumference (WC) were measured. Questionnaires regarding knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) of salt diet validated from WHO/PAHO and Food Frequency Questionnaires regarding sodium intake validated from IPH Malaysia were administered. Statistical data was analysed using SPSS. Results: The prevalence of undiagnosed hypertension was 24%. About 66% of the participants had excessive sodium intake. The mean sodium intake was 2869.43±930.75mg/d. Simple linear regression showed that BMI. %BF, VFR, and WC were significantly correlated with systolic blood pressure (SBP). Age and sodium intake were not correlated with SBP. After controlling all the variables in multiple linear regression, VFR remained as a significant contributor to SBP (adjusted R2=0.419, F=18.833, p=<0.001). Soy sauce, omelette, fried rice, and nasi lemak were the main contributors of sodium intake. A lack of knowledge on the negative impacts of high salt diet was significantly associated with high dietary sodium intake (>2400mg/d). Conclusion: Our study found a high prevalence of undiagnosed hypertension among the private university staff. The association between VFR and SBP is an important finding for community study. Increased awareness on the excessive salt consumed and its association with health is needed to reduce the sodium intake.

Development of objective indicators for quantitative analysis of sodium intake: the sodium to potassium ratio of second-void urine is correlated with 24-hour urinary sodium excretion

Effect of dietary sodium intake on residual renal function in patients undergoing peritoneal dialysis: a prospective study of 33 cases / 南方医科大学学报

OBJECTIVE@#To explore the impact of dietary sodium-intake on residual renal function in patients undergoing peritoneal dialysis (PD).@*METHODS@#Thirty-three patients on PD with stable dialysis were regularly followed up for 12 months. The daily sodium intake of the patients was calculated based on the 3-day dietary record. Based on the mean daily sodium intake, the patients enrolled were divided into low-salt group (sodium intake≤3.0 g/day, 19 patients) and high-salt group (sodium intake>3.0 g/day, 14 patients). The baseline data of the patients were recorded, and the indicators of residual renal function and peritoneal function were regularly tested. The patients were followed-up at 3-month intervals, and their urine volume, peritoneal ultrafiltration volume and other clinical indicators were recorded and the biochemical indexes were detected to evaluate the changes in the residual renal function and peritoneal function.@*RESULTS@#There was a positive correlation between the total sodium excretion and dietary sodium intake in these patients (=0.536, =0.0013), and sodium excretion by dialysis was positively correlated with their sodium intake (=0.901, =0.000). Regression analysis suggested that the total sodium excretion was correlated with dietary sodium intake (β=0.416, 95% : 0.170-0.666; < 0.0018); sodium excretion by dialysis was associated with dietary sodium intake (β=0.489, 95% : 0.395-0.582; < 0.001). The residual renal function was reduced by 17.48±11.22 L /(w·1.73 m) in the low-salt group, as compared to 30.20±18.30 L /(w·1.73 m) in the high-salt group (=0.032). The reduction in the residual renal function was correlated with sodium intake in the PD patients (=0.409, =0.018). Multivariate regression analysis showed that sodium intake was an independent factor contributing to the reduction of residual renal function (β=14.646, 95% CI 7.426-21.866, < 0.001).@*CONCLUSIONS@#Sodium excretion by PD in patients with continuous ambulatory PD is positively correlated with their dietary sodium intake, which contribute to the decrease of residual renal function. A high dietary sodium intake may accelerate the reduction of residual renal function in these patients.

Analysis of a voluntary initiative to reduce sodium in processed and ultra-processed food products in Argentina: the views of public and private sector representatives / Análisis de una iniciativa voluntaria para reducir el sodio en productos procesados y ultra-procesados en Argentina: perspectivas de los representantes del sector público y privado / Análise de uma iniciativa voluntária para reduzir o teor de sódio em produtos alimentícios processados e ultra-processados na Argentina: as perspectivas de representantes dos setores público e privado

Abstract: The Less Salt, More Life program was the first voluntary salt reduction initiative in Argentina. This article analyzes the perspectives of the stakeholders involved in this voluntary agreement between the Ministry of Health and the food industry to gradually reduce sodium content in processed foods. This exploratory case study used a qualitative approach including 29 in-depth interviews with stakeholders from the public and private sectors and identified the role of the different stakeholders and their perceptions regarding the challenges encountered in the policy process that contribute to the debate on public-private partnerships in health policies. The article also discusses the initiative's main challenges and controversies.

El programa Menos Sal, Más Vida fue la primera iniciativa voluntaria para la reducción de la sal en Argentina. Este artículo analiza las perspectivas de los representantes del sector público y privado involucrados en este acuerdo voluntario, entre el Ministerio de Salud y la industria alimentaria, para reducir gradualmente el contenido de sodio en las comidas procesadas. Este estudio de caso se basó en una aproximación cualitativa, incluyendo 29 entrevistas en profundidad, con las partes interesadas del sector público y privado e identificó el papel de los mismos y sus percepciones respecto a los desafíos enfrentados durante el proceso, con el fin de contribuir al debate de las colaboraciones público-privadas en políticas de salud. El artículo también discute los principales desafíos y controversias.

O programa Menos Sal, Mais Vida foi a primeira iniciativa voluntária para reduzir o teor de sal em produtos alimentícios na Argentina. O artigo analisa as perspectivas dos atores envolvidos nesse acordo voluntário entre o Ministério da Saúde e a indústria alimentícia para reduzir gradualmente o teor de sódio nos alimentos processados. O estudo de caso exploratório utilizou uma abordagem qualitativa com 29 entrevistas em profundidade com representantes dos setores público e privado, e identificou o papel dos diversos atores e suas percepções quanto aos desafios enfrentados no processo político, contribuindo para o debate sobre parcerias público-privadas em políticas de saúde. O artigo também discute os principais desafios e controvérsias dessa iniciativa.

The association between dietary sodium intake and adiposity, inflammation, and hormone markers: A preliminary study / 한국영양학회지

PURPOSE: Excess intake of sodium is a major diet-related risk factor for human diseases including hypertension and cancer as well as obesity and inflammation. However, findings are still controversial, and evidence is lacking in Koreans. Therefore, for better understanding of the role of dietary sodium intake in disease etiology, this study investigated the effects of dietary sodium intake on adiposity, inflammation, and hormones in Koreans. METHODS: A total of 80 males and females joined the study. The general characteristics and dietary intake data were investigated by trained interviewers using a questionnaire and 24-h dietary recall, respectively. For the markers of adiposity, body weight, body mass index, percent of body fat, visceral fat area, and waist and hip circumference were measured. For the inflammation and hormone markers, leptin, adiponectin, insulin, tumor necrosis factor-α, and interleukin-6 were also analyzed. RESULTS: Multivariate linear regression analyses suggested that dietary sodium intake was not associated with adiposity. However, dietary sodium showed a significant association with insulin level: Plasma insulin concentration increased with sodium intake independent of other dietary intake or percent of body fat (β = 0.296, adjusted r² = 0.276, p < 0.01). Other markers for inflammation and hormonal responses were not associated with dietary sodium intake. CONCLUSION: Findings suggested that dietary sodium intake may be a critical modifying factor in the level of plasma insulin. However, it showed a limited effect on obesity and other inflammation markers and hormone levels. These findings should be confirmed in larger, well-designed investigations.

The Association of Knowledge, Attitude and Practice with 24 Hours Urinary Sodium Excretion among Malay Healthcare Staff in Malaysia

The most effective and affordable public health strategy to prevent hypertension, stroke and renal disease is by reducing daily salt consumption. Therefore, this study aims to determine the association of knowledge, attitude and practice on salt diet intake and to identify foods contributing to high sodium intake. Secondary data analysis was performed on MySalt 2016 data. It was conducted from November 2015 until January 2016 which involving Ministry of Health Staff worked at 16 study sites in Malaysia. Salt intake was measured using 24 hours urinary sodium excretion. Food frequency questionnaire was used to determine the sodium sources. Knowledge, attitude and practice of salt intake were assessed using a validated questionnaire adapted from WHO. Demographic data and anthropometric measures also were collected. Sodium levels of more than 2400mg/day was categorised as high sodium intake. Data were analysed using SPSS software version 21. The mean sodium intake estimated by 24 hours urinary sodium excretion was 2853.23 + 1275.8 mg/day. Food groups namely rice/noodles (33.8%), sauces/seasoning (20.6%), meat and poultry (12.6%) and fish/seafoods (9.3%) were the major contributors of dietary sodium. In multiple logistic regression analysis, being a male (aOR=2.83, 95% CI 2.02 – 3.96) and obese (aOR=6.78, 95% CI 1.98 – 23.18) were significantly associated with high urinary sodium excretions. In addition, those who were unsure that high salt intake can cause hypertension (aOR=1.24, 95% CI 0.65 – 2.36), those who think that they consumed too much salt (aOR=2.10, 95% CI 1.13 – 3.87) and those who only use salt rather than other spices for cooking (aOR=2.07, 95% CI 1.29 – 3.30) were significantly associated with high urinary sodium excretion. This study showed that the main sources of sodium among Malay healthcare staff is cooked food. Poor knowledge and practice towards reducing salt consumption among them contributes to the high sodium consumption. The practice of healthy eating among them together with continuous awareness campaign is essential in order to educate them to minimize sodium consumption and to practice healthy eating.​

Salt treatment for recovery of the mud loach, Misgurnus mizolepis from transport stress

Due to the shortage of the fingerling/juvenile mud loach, Misgurnus mizolepis in Korea, these fish have been imported from China. However, the mortality rate during and after their transportation is very high. In this study, we examined various physiological and histological parameters to evaluate the effect of salt treatment on the survival and recovery of mud loaches in holding farms during the quarantine process. Glucose, osmolality, Na+, Cl−, and histological changes were assessed for three different salinities. Non-treated fish (control 0.0%) exhibited lower levels of osmolality, and Na+ and Cl− concentrations compared with those kept in solar salt solution (0.5% and 1.0%). Glucose levels in control fish were higher than those in fish exposed to 0.5% and 1.0% solar salt solution. Histologically, control fish showed thinner epidermis of skin, branchial hyperplasia and lamellar fusion with an abundance of eosinophilic granule cell-like cells. After solar salt solution treatment, damaged gill structures in the fish almost recovered within 5 days. The present study demonstrates that mud loaches transported from China suffer from skin and gill damage and physiological dysfunction which may increase the mortality and morbidity. Moreover, saline treatment might alleviate the stress responses and ionic/osmotic imbalances, and help heal gill damage.

Elevation of heart-femoral pulse wave velocity by short-term low sodium diet followed by high sodium diet in hypertensive patients with sodium sensitivity

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: We compared changes in heart-femoral pulse wave velocity (hfPWV) in response to low sodium and high sodium diet between individuals with sodium sensitivity (SS) and resistance (SR) to evaluate the influence of sodium intake on arterial stiffness. SUBJECTS/METHODS: Thirty-one hypertensive and 70 normotensive individuals were given 7 days of low sodium dietary approach to stop hypertension (DASH) diet (LSD, 100 mmol NaCl/day) followed by 7 days of high sodium DASH diet (HSD, 300 mmol NaCl/day) during 2 weeks of hospitalization. The hfPWV was measured and compared after the LSD and HSD. RESULTS: The hfPWV was significantly elevated from LSD to HSD in individuals with SS (P = 0.001) independently of changes in mean arterial pressure (P = 0.037). Conversely, there was no significant elevation of hfPWV from LSD to HSD in individuals with SR. The percent change in hfPWV from the LSD to the HSD in individuals with SS was higher than that in individuals with SR. Subgroup analysis revealed that individuals with both SS and hypertension showed significant elevation of hfPWV from LSD to HSD upon adjusted analysis using changes of the means arterial pressure (P = 0.040). However, there was no significant elevation of hfPWV in individuals with SS and normotension. CONCLUSION: High sodium intake elevated hfPWV in hypertensive individuals with SS, suggesting that high sodium intake increases aortic stiffness, and may contribute to enhanced cardiovascular risk in hypertensive individuals with SS.

Elevation of heart-femoral pulse wave velocity by short-term low sodium diet followed by high sodium diet in hypertensive patients with sodium sensitivity

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: We compared changes in heart-femoral pulse wave velocity (hfPWV) in response to low sodium and high sodium diet between individuals with sodium sensitivity (SS) and resistance (SR) to evaluate the influence of sodium intake on arterial stiffness. SUBJECTS/METHODS: Thirty-one hypertensive and 70 normotensive individuals were given 7 days of low sodium dietary approach to stop hypertension (DASH) diet (LSD, 100 mmol NaCl/day) followed by 7 days of high sodium DASH diet (HSD, 300 mmol NaCl/day) during 2 weeks of hospitalization. The hfPWV was measured and compared after the LSD and HSD. RESULTS: The hfPWV was significantly elevated from LSD to HSD in individuals with SS (P = 0.001) independently of changes in mean arterial pressure (P = 0.037). Conversely, there was no significant elevation of hfPWV from LSD to HSD in individuals with SR. The percent change in hfPWV from the LSD to the HSD in individuals with SS was higher than that in individuals with SR. Subgroup analysis revealed that individuals with both SS and hypertension showed significant elevation of hfPWV from LSD to HSD upon adjusted analysis using changes of the means arterial pressure (P = 0.040). However, there was no significant elevation of hfPWV in individuals with SS and normotension. CONCLUSION: High sodium intake elevated hfPWV in hypertensive individuals with SS, suggesting that high sodium intake increases aortic stiffness, and may contribute to enhanced cardiovascular risk in hypertensive individuals with SS.

Relationship between Salt Preference and Gastric Cancer Screening: An Analysis of a Nationwide Survey in Korea / Journal of the Korean Cancer Association, 대한암학회지

PURPOSE: Epidemiological studies have demonstrated an association between excessive salt intake and gastric cancer risk, and this potential risk increases the need for adequate gastric cancer screening in individuals with high salt intake. However, the association between salt intake and gastric cancer screening in the general population has rarely been investigated. We explored the association between salt preference and participation in gastric cancer screening among a nationally representative Korean population. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study population was derived from the Korean National Cancer Screening Survey (KNCSS) 2006-2007, an annual nationwide interview survey investigating cancer screening rates. Of 4,055 individuals who participated in the KNCSS 2006-2007, 3,336 individuals aged over 40 years were included in our analysis. The odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) were estimated using polytomous logistic regression. RESULTS: Individuals with higher salt preference were less likely to participate in regular gastric cancer screening. After adjusting for age, sex, monthly household income, education, family history of cancer, and self-rated health status, ORs for undergoing regular gastric cancer screening were 1.00, 0.82 (95% CI, 0.61 to 1.12), 0.74 (95% CI, 0.54 to 1.00), 0.77 (95% CI, 0.56 to 1.05), and 0.38 (95% CI, 0.16 to 0.92) according to the level of salt preference (p for trend=0.048). CONCLUSION: Individuals with higher salt preference showed suboptimal gastric cancer screening adherence compared to those with a lower salt preference. These findings highlight the need for better delivery of educational messages to change risk perceptions regarding gastric cancer screening practice.

Impacto da redução do teor de sódio em alimentos processados no consumo de sódio no Brasil / Impacto de la reducción del contenido de sodio en los alimentos procesados en la ingestión de sodio en Brasil / The impact of the reduction of sodium content in processed foods in salt intake in Brazil

Resumo: O objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar o potencial impacto da redução do teor de sódio em alimentos processados no consumo médio de sódio na população brasileira. Um total de 32.900 participantes do primeiro Inquérito Nacional de Alimentação (2008-2009), com 10 anos e mais de idade, que forneceram dados de dois dias de consumo foram avaliados. As metas de redução de sódio pactuadas pelo Ministério da Saúde em 2010 e 2013 foram utilizadas como referência para determinar o teor máximo de sódio em 21 grupos de alimentos processados. Os resultados indicam que as metas de redução de sódio em alimentos processados têm pequeno impacto no consumo médio de sódio na população brasileira. Em 2017, a redução média esperada é de 1,5%, ficando os valores de consumo médio de sódio ainda acima do limite máximo recomendado de 2.000mg/dia. Portanto, dificilmente será possível alcançar a redução necessária no consumo de sódio no Brasil a partir de acordos voluntários nos moldes dos que aconteceram até o momento.

Resumen: El objetivo del presente estudio fue evaluar el potencial impacto de la reducción del contenido en sodio en alimentos procesados en el consumo medio de sodio de la población brasileña. Un total de 32.900 participantes de la primera Encuesta Nacional de Alimentación (2008-2009), con 10 años y más de edad, proporcionaron datos sobre dos días de consumo, que fueron evaluados. Las metas de reducción de sodio, indicadas por el Ministerio de Salud en 2010 y 2013, fueron utilizadas como referencia para determinar el contenido máximo de sodio en 21 grupos de alimentos procesados. Los resultados indican que las metas de reducción de sodio en alimentos procesados tiene un pequeño impacto en el consumo medio de sodio en la población brasileña. En 2017, la reducción media esperada es de un 1,5%, quedando los valores de consumo medio de sodio todavía por encima del límite máximo recomendado de 2.000mg/día. Por tanto, difícilmente será posible alcanzar la reducción necesaria en el consumo de sodio en Brasil, a partir de acuerdos voluntarios en los términos de los que se han ido sucediendo hasta el momento.

Abstract: This study aimed at assessing the potential impact of the reduction of sodium content in processed foods in the average salt intake in the Brazilian population. A total of 32,900 participants of the first National Dietary Survey (NDS 2008-2009), age 10 years and older who provided information about food intake over two days were evaluated. The sodium reduction targets established by the Brazilian Ministry of Health in 2010 and 2013 were used as the reference to determine the maximum content of sodium in 21 groups of processed food. The results show that sodium reduction targets in processed food have small impact in mean Brazilian population intake of salt. For 2017, the expected mean reduction is of 1.5%, the average sodium intake being still above the recommended 2,000mg/day maximum. Therefore, it will hardly be possible to reach the necessary reduction in salt intake in Brazil from volunteer agreements like the ones made so far.

High Dietary Sodium Intake Assessed by 24-hour Urine Specimen Increase Urinary Calcium Excretion and Bone Resorption Marker

BACKGROUND: The average dietary sodium intake of Koreans is 2.6 times higher than the World Health Organization's recommended amount. The effect of a diet high in sodium on the skeletal system, especially osteoporosis, has not previously been examined in Korean postmenopausal women with low bone mass. We assessed the daily sodium intake, and determined the impact of sodium intake on urinary calcium excretion and bone resorption marker. METHODS: A retrospective review of medical records was performed for 86 postmenopausal subjects who were initially diagnosed with osteopenia or osteoporosis at the health promotion center. They were subsequently referred to the Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism between 2010 and 2013. All subjects completed a modified food frequency questionnaire. Twenty-four hour urine collection for sodium, calcium and creatinine excretion, and serum C-terminal telopeptides of type I collagen (CTX-I) were also obtained. RESULTS: The average amount of daily sodium and calcium intake were 3,466 mg and 813 mg, respectively. Average dietary sodium intake and 24-hour urinary sodium excretion showed significant positive linear correlation (r=0.29, P=0.006). There was also a significant positive linear correlation between 24-hour urine sodium and calcium excretion (r=0.42, P<0.001); CTX-I and 24-hour urinary calcium excretion (r=0.29, P=0.007). CONCLUSIONS: Excessive sodium intake assessed by 24-hour urine specimen is associated with high calcium excretion in urine. High calcium excretion is also related to increasing bone resorption marker.

A survey on the sodium content of customers' orderings at three restaurants in Beijing / 中华流行病学杂志

Objective To survey the mean sodium content of menu offering and customers' orderings on sodium when eating out.Methods All weights of ingredients of menu offerings at three Chinese restaurants with Wenzhou,Shandong,and Yunnan cuisines,in Beijing,were collected and their sodium values were estimated based on data from the Chinese Food Composition.All records from customers' orders were collected in a certain period of time from year 2011 to 2013.The mean sodium content of ordering per person and the proportion of all orders exceeding the recommended daily sodium limit that applicable to most native Chinese,were estimated.Results Of all the menu offerings,hot dishes (1 728.6 mg; P25,P75:1 198.7,2 482.8) and soup dishes (2 101.5 mg;P25,P75:1 467.8,2 291.2) had the highest sodium contents,followed by cold dressed dishes (790.7 mg; P25,P75:128.1,1 472.9) staple foods (802.9 mg; P25,P75:115.1,1 563.2) while the beverages having the lowest sodium contents (17.0 mg;P25,P75:2.0,19.5) (P＜0.05).Meat dishes (1 796.3 mg;P25,P75:1 303.9,2 670.3) contained more sodium than vegetable dishes (1 105.5 mg; P25,P75:423.6,1 628.6)(P＜0.001).The median sodium contents in per person orderings were 2 325.6 mg (P25,P75:1 700.7,3 213.8) for lunch and 2 542.5 mg (P25,P75:1 857.5,3 498.1) for dinner.Current dietary guideline recommended for Chinese adults was:in general,the amount of consumption should not exceed 2 400 mg of sodium per day.Based on the recornmended optimal daily calories intake ratio as 3 ∶ 4 ∶ 3for breakfast,lunch,and dinner,we would suggest that the sodium intake should follow the amount as 960 mg for lunch and 720 mg for dinner.Our data indicated that 97.5％ of the ordered meals appeared that they were over the recommended sodium limit and 76,5％ of the tables showed two times more than the limit of recommendation.Conclusion Soup and hot dishes provided at these three restaurants contained more sodium contents.People ordered dishes at restaurants would contain more sodium than the recommended Chinese daily sodium intake.

Trends in the major dish groups and food groups contributing to sodium intake in the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1998-2010

The purpose of this study was to evaluate trends in the sources of dietary sodium intake in a representative Korean population in the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) conducted in 1998, 2001, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009, and 2010. The study consisted of 53,570 men and women aged 7 years or older participating in the KNHANES during the corresponding years. Overall sodium intake and the mean percent contribution of each dish and food group to dietary sodium intake across 1998-2010 were calculated. The means of sodium intake ranged between 4,572.6-5,498.9 mg/d across 1998-2010. The major dish groups contributing to dietary sodium intake were kimchi (1,154.8-1,521.2 mg/d), noodles and dumplings (505.3-760.5 mg/d), soups (465.3-714.8 mg/d), and stews and casseroles (387.0-579.8 mg/d). The combined mean percent contribution from the top four dish groups contributing to dietary sodium intake showed a slight decrease over the period; 64.4% in 1998, 64.5% in 2001, 59.3% in 2005, 58.2% in 2007, 56.3% in 2008, 56.7% in 2009, and 54.4% in 2010. The major food groups contributing to dietary sodium intake were seasonings (1,852.9-2,435.9 mg/d), vegetables (1,425.6-1,792.1 mg/d), grains (482.2-778.1 mg/d), and fish and shellfish (257.2-351.4 mg/d). In addition, the combined mean percent contribution from the top four food groups showed a slight decrease over the period; 92.8% in 1998, 93.2% in 2001, 93.8% in 2005, 92.1% in 2007, 91.7% in 2008, 90.9% in 2009, and 90.7% in 2010. In summary, we did not observe a reduction in dietary sodium intake over time, however, the percent contributions from the top major dish groups or food groups to dietary sodium intake showed a decrease over the last decade.

Dietary sodium intake in young Korean adults and its relationship with eating frequency and taste preference

Dietary sodium intake is considered one of the major causal factors for hypertension. Thus, to control the increase of blood pressure and reduce the risk of hypertension-related clinical complications, a reduction in sodium intake is recommended. The present study aimed at determining the association of dietary sodium intake with meal and snack frequency, snacking time, and taste preference in Korean young adults aged 20-26 years, using a 125-item dish-frequency questionnaire. The mean dietary sodium intakes of men and women were 270.6 mmol/day and 213.1 mmol/day, which were approximately 310% and 245% of the daily sodium intake goal for Korean men and women, respectively. Dietary sodium intake was positively correlated with systolic blood pressure in the total group, and BMI in the total and men-only groups. In the total and men-only groups, those who consumed meals more times per day consumed more dietary sodium, but the number of times they consumed snacks was negatively correlated with dietary sodium intake in the total, men-only, and women-only groups. In addition, those who consumed snacks in the evening consumed more sodium than those who did so in the morning in the men-only group. The sodium intake was also positively associated with preference for salty and sweet taste in the total and women-only groups. Such a high intake of sodium in these young subjects shows that a reduction in sodium intake is important for the prevention of hypertension and related diseases in the future.

Estimativas do consumo de sódio no Brasil, revisão dos benefícios relacionados à limitação do consumo deste nutriente na Síndrome Metabólica e avaliação de impacto de intervenção no local de trabalho / Estimates of sodium consumption in Brazil, review of benefits related to limiting the consumption of this nutrient in the Metabolic Syndrome and assessment of impact of intervention at the workplace

O consumo excessivo de sódio tem se associado com vários efeitos prejudiciais à saúde, como aumento da pressão arterial (PA) e doença cardiovascular. Objetivos: Os objetivos da tese foram avaliar a disponibilidade de sódio no Brasil, analisar os efeitos de dietas com teores reduzidos de sódio em indivíduos com Síndrome Metabólica (SM) ou resistência à insulina (RI) e avaliar o impacto de uma intervenção que promoveu a redução da adição de sal aos alimentos. Sujeitos e métodos: A tese está composta de três artigos. O primeiro deles avaliou as aquisições de alimentos e bebidas realizadas pelos domicílios na Pesquisa de Orçamento Familiar de 2002/2003 do Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. O segundo artigo revisou a literatura de forma sistemática acerca dos ensaios clínicos realizados em adultos entre anos de 2004 e 2008. E o último artigo avaliou o impacto de uma intervenção, baseada no modelo ecológico de promoção de saúde, na redução da adição de sal nos alimentos consumidos por trabalhadores de empresas da cidade de São Paulo. Resultados: A quantidade diária de sódio disponível para consumo nos domicílios brasileiros foi de 4,7 g per capita e para uma ingestão diária de 2.000 kcal. A maior parte do sódio disponível para consumo proveio do sal de cozinha e de condimentos à base desse sal (76,2 por cento). A fração proveniente de alimentos processados com adição de sal representou 9,7por cento do total de sódio no quinto inferior da distribuição da renda per capita e 25,0 por cento no quinto superior. A restrição no consumo de sódio associou-se ao aumento da RI em dois artigos e à diminuição em três outros. Em sete dos nove artigos, uma dieta com teor reduzido de sódio determinou redução da PA e em dois artigos ocorreram efeitos adversos em marcadores da SM...

The excess of sodium consumption has been associated with several adverse health effects, such as increased of blood pressure (BP) and cardiovascular disease. Objectives: Evaluate the availability of sodium in Brazil, analyze the effects of diets with reduced sodium content in subjects with Metabolic Syndrome (MS) or insulin resistance (IR) and evaluate the impact of an intervention which promoted the reduction of adding salt to foods. Subjects and Methods: The thesis is composed of three articles. The first one assessed the food and beverage purchases made by households in the Household Budget Survey of 2002/2003, by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics. The second article reviewed the literature in a systematic way about clinical trials performed in adults between the years 2004 and 2008. And the last paper assessed the impact of an intervention, based on the ecological model of health promotion, in reducing the added salt to foods consumed by employees of Sao Paulo based companies. Results: The daily amount of sodium available in Brazilian households was 4.7 g daily per person for 2,000 kcal intake. Most of the sodium available for consumption comes from the salt and salt based seasonings (76.2 per cent). The fraction derived from processed foods with added salt represented 9.7 per cent of total sodium intake at the bottom of per person income distribution and 25.0 per cent at the top fifth. The restriction in sodium intake was associated with increased IR in two articles and the decrease in three others. In seven of the nine articles, the salt intake restriction had caused decreased in BP and in two articles have occurred adverse effects on markers of MS...

Consumo de sódio e síndrome metabólica: uma revisão sistemática / Sodium intake and metabolic syndrome: a systematic review

Estudos recentes mostram que restrições na ingestão de sódio podem aumentar a resistência à insulina (RI) e induzir alterações nas lipoproteínas séricas e em marcadores de inflamação semelhantes às encontradas na síndrome metabólica (SM). Realizou-se uma revisão sistemática da literatura sobre os efeitos da restrição do consumo de sódio sobre a SM ou a RI. Nove artigos foram incluídos na revisão. A restrição no consumo de sódio associou-se ao aumento da RI em dois artigos e a diminuição em três outros. Em sete dos nove artigos, a restrição na ingestão de sal determinou redução da pressão arterial e em dois artigos ocorreram efeitos adversos em marcadores da SM. A maioria dos estudos mostrou efeitos benéficos da restrição moderada de sódio da dieta associados ou não a outras modificações nutricionais ou ao aumento da atividade física. Novos estudos são necessários para avaliar os efeitos de reduções moderadas no consumo de sódio sobre a SM e a RI.

Recent studies have shown that sodium intake restrictions may increase insulin resistance (IR) and induce changes on serum lipoproteins and on inflammation markers that are similar to those found in metabolic syndrome (MS). We performed a systematic review of literature regarding the effects of restricting sodium intake on MS or on IR. Nine articles were included in the review. Restriction of sodium consumption was associated with increase insulin resistance in two articles and with decrease in three others. In seven of nine articles, salt intake restriction determined blood pressure reduction, and in two articles adverse effects on markers of MS were found. Most studies showed beneficial effects of moderate sodium intake restriction, associated or not to others nutritional modifications or increased physical activity. Further studies are needed to evaluate the effects of moderate sodium consumption reductions on MS and IR.

Expression of Calcium Transporters According to Dietary Sodium in the Distal Tubule of Rat Kidneys / 대한신장학회지

PURPOSE: Hypercalciuria is a risk factor of renal calcium stone and proper initial management is dietary salt restriction. But the molecular mechanism responsible for this sodium calcium relationship remains unclear. The present study investigates the relationship between different amount of sodium intake and the expression level of transporters involved in the active calcium transport. METHODS: Sprague-Dawley rats were randomized into three groups: a normal salt group, a low salt group, and a high salt group. Expression of mRNA and protein of transient receptor potential vanilloid (TRPV) 5 and calbindin-D28K was determined by real-time quantitative PCR and western blots, respectively. RESULTS: Hematocrit and body weight showed no difference among the three groups. High salt diet led to significant increase in the amount of urinary calcium excretion and decreased mRNA expression of calbindin-D28K and TRPV5. Protein abundance of calbindin-D28K and TRPV5 was decreased but the result was statistically insignificant. Low salt diet decreased the amount of urinary calcium excretion without significant difference. Messenger RNA expression and protein abundance of calbindin-D28K and TRPV5 showed no difference, compared to those of normal salt group. CONCLUSION: These data suggest that high sodium intake increases urinary calcium excretion, which is accompanied by a decreased expression of calbindin-D28K mRNA.