Envejecimiento saludable: un primer acercamiento a la revisión de indicadores subjetivos de salud en zonas urbanas y rurales en Costa Rica / Healthy aging: An initial review of subjective health indicators in urban and rural areas in Costa Rica

Resumen En este artículo se presentan los resultados de una primera aproximación al análisis del efecto moderador del contexto social, cultural y geográfico en indicadores subjetivos del envejecimiento saludable en personas mayores de 46 años residentes en territorios con características diferenciadas en Costa Rica. Se trabajó con una muestra de 305 personas residentes en tres áreas geográficas: una urbana, una semiurbana y una tercera principalmente rural. La diferenciación de las tres zonas se basó en criterios de densidad poblacional, infraestructura y acceso a bienes y servicios. Los indicadores subjetivos del envejecimiento saludable analizados fueron: participación social, apoyo social, salud percibida, espiritualidad, autoeficacia, comportamientos de autocuidado, bienestar subjetivo (satisfacción con la vida y bienestar psicológico) y estado de ánimo; todas las variables fueron condicionadas por zona de residencia, edad y sexo. Para analizar los indicadores subjetivos se estimó un análisis de covarianza (ANCOVA) o un análisis multivariado de covarianza (MANCOVA), dependiendo del número de variables dependientes analizadas. En general, se identificaron indicadores subjetivos de envejecimiento saludable altos en las personas participantes del estudio, quienes reportaron altos niveles de participación social, satisfacción con la vida y estados de salud y ánimo positivos. Se encontraron diferencias por edad entre los grupos. Sin embargo, no se evidenciaron diferencias estadísticamente significativas en los indicadores subjetivos analizados según la zona de residencia o el sexo. En síntesis, este estudio encontró que los indicadores subjetivos de envejecimiento saludable analizados eran muy similares en residentes de tres zonas geográficas con características distintas. Estos hallazgos iniciales se discuten desde una perspectiva cultural y geográfica y en relación con los modelos de envejecimiento saludable.

Abstract This review exposes the results of a first approximation to the analysis of the moderator effect of the geographical, social, and cultural context on subjective indicators of healthy aging in the Costa Rican context. Costa Rica is a middle-income democratic country that is in an advanced demographic changing process; this phenomenon makes it one of the aged countries in the Latin American region. Therefore, studying healthy aging becomes relevant in the context of population demographic change in the present and future aging societies. The study compared several subjective indicators of healthy aging among people older than 46 who resided in three different geographical areas in the country. Participants were 305 healthy people from three locations: one urban (Heredia Central City), one semi-urban (Santa Ana Central City), and one mainly rural (Nicoya). Participants completed standardized assessment scales to evaluate social participation, social support, perceived health, spirituality, self-efficacy, self-care behaviors, and subjective well-being (life satisfaction and psychological well-being). All variables were conditioned by geographical zone (urban, semi-urban, and mainly rural), age, and gender. Either Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) or Multivariate Analysis of Covariance (MANCOVA) were estimated depending on the number of dependent variables analyzed to test the effect of the zone of residence, gender, and age, over the subjective indicator of healthy aging studied. In general, participants evidenced high scores on subjective indicators such as self-care, social support, spirituality, life satisfaction, and psychological well-being, which have been associated with health and well-being during the aging process. Participants reported high levels of social participation and perceived that they received adequate support for their daily life needs. Likewise, participants evidenced a general state of well-being, a positive state of health, high levels of self-efficacy, and positive moods. Differences were found among the groups by comparing age. However, no significant differences were found in the variables studied related to geographical areas of residence and sex, suggesting invariant comparison evidence by zone of residence and sex. Nevertheless, the results indicate that the subjective indicators of healthy aging studied are key to promoting healthy aging at the national level. It is considered necessary to improve opportunities for social participation aimed at older adults, to strengthen community and family social networks, to promote socio-economic support such as financial and instrumental support for activities of daily living, and finally emotional support such as listening, empathy and advice. Although the differences among geographical areas of residence of the people studied were not statistically significant in this study, the evidence suggested a trend of high well-being indicators mainly in the rural areas studied, and particularly more in males than in females. As this study only reached preliminary data, further research must obtain conclusive evidence, as previous research had suggested older people living in rural areas with high longevity indicators in Costa Rica might enjoy unusual environmental characteristics and personal protective factors that could be absent in most of the urban areas in the country. On the other hand, it will be necessary to include the historical and socio-cultural determinants focusing on context-specific review analyses in the mainstream research on healthy aging, even more in aged countries like Costa Rica. The findings are discussed within the inter-cultural emphasis and healthy aging models in order to contribute to a better understanding of how the context (physical-constructed and social/cultural) influences the differences, although subtle, in the study´s variables and participants, and how the process of aging might be different according to the multiple contextual conditions in which people live and adapt their capacities and abilities for coping with daily life demands.

Trayectorias de fragilidad y factores relacionados en la población de adultos mayores en México / Trajectories of frailty and related factors of elderly people in Mexico

Resumen Introducción: la fragilidad es un indicador del estado de salud en la vejez y un síndrome clínico común en adultos mayores; conlleva un elevado riesgo de resultados deficientes de salud que incluyen caídas, incidentes de discapacidad, hospitalización y mortalidad. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo identificar las diferentes trayectorias de la fragilidad y los factores relacionados con esta entre adultos mayores mexicanos a lo largo del tiempo. Metodología: los datos provienen de un panel de cuatro rondas compuesto por adultos mayores mexicanos y desarrollado de 2001 a 2015 por el Estudio Nacional de Salud y Envejecimiento en México (ENASEM). La fragilidad es la acumulación de déficits a partir de un índice de fragilidad. Se aplicó un análisis multinivel, utilizando modelos jerárquicos para conocer los cambios de trayectorias de fragilidad y qué factores se relacionan con ella. Resultados: ser mujer mayor, viuda y tener un bajo nivel educativo fueron factores de riesgo para un índice de fragilidad alto y una menor satisfacción financiera o realizar actividades en el hogar tienen efectos adversos. Conclusiones: se halló una prevalencia de la fragilidad según la proporción de déficits que poseen los individuos y sus primordiales componentes asociados. Se requiere mejorar las condiciones socioeconómicas de salud en fases previas a la vejez con miras a evitar la presencia de fragilidad en el futuro.

Abstract Introduction: Frailty is an indicator of health status in old age and a common clinical syndrome in older adults that carries an increased risk of poor health outcomes, including falls, incidents of disability, hospitalization, and mortality. This study aimed to identify the different trajectories of frailty and the factors related to frailty among Mexican older adults over time. Methods: Data are from a four-wave panel composed of older Mexican adults from 2001 to 2015 of the Mexican Health and Aging Study (MHAS). Frailty is the accumulation of deficits using a frailty index. A multilevel analysis, using hierarchical models, was applied to know the changes of frailty trajectories and what factors are related to it. Results: Being female, older, being widowhood, and having a lower level of education were risk factors for having a high frailty index and lower financial satisfaction doing activities at home have adverse effects. Conclusion: The findings of this work present information about the prevalence of frailty considering the proportion of deficits that individuals possess and their main associated components in older Mexican adults. It is necessary to improve socioeconomic health conditions in phases before old age to avoid developing frailty in the future.

Differences Between Sexes in Psychopathological Variables among Adolescent Victims of Dating Violence / Diferencias por Sexo en Variables Psicopatológicas entre Adolescentes Víctimas de Violencia en el Noviazgo

Abstract This descriptive-comparative study had the aim of examining if there were differences between sexes with respect to a number of psychopathological variables and other issues among adolescents who are victims of dating violence. There were 757 participants, adolescents between 12 and 19 years of age; 59% were female (and 41% male), from 15 different secondary education institutions in two intermediate-sized cities in Colombia. The following instruments were used: the Spanish version of Conflict in Adolescent Dating Relationships Inventory (CADRI), the Behavior Assessment System for Children and Adolescents -self-report version- (BASC-S3), the Symptoms Checklist SCL-90-R and a self-report, psychological variable questionnaire. The boys surveyed reported having received more relational and physical aggression. However, the girls demonstrated a significantly higher frequency in terms of psychopathological symptoms, more severe clinical and personal maladjustment, and bad relationships with peers and relatives. This indicates that the girls who are victims of these forms of violence suffer more difficulties, an aspect that should be taken into consideration in the prevention and intervention campaigns related with this issue.

Resumen Este estudio descriptivo comparativo tuvo como objetivo examinar si existían diferencias por sexo con respecto a un conjunto de variables psicopatológicas y otras dificultades, entre adolescentes víctimas de violencia en el noviazgo (VN). Participaron 757 adolescentes entre 12 y 19 años de edad, el 59% mujeres, vinculados a 15 instituciones de educación media de dos ciudades intermedias de Colombia. Se utilizó la versión española del Conflict in Adolescent Dating Relationships Inventory (CADRI), el Sistema de Evaluación de la Conducta de Niños y Adolescentes -versión de auto informe- (BASC-S3), la Lista de Síntomas SCL-90-R y un cuestionario de auto-informe de variables psicológicas. Los varones reportaron haber recibido una frecuencia mayor de malos tratos de tipo relacional y físico. Sin embargo, las mujeres evidenciaron una frecuencia significativamente mayor de síntomas psicopatológicos, un mayor desajuste clínico y personal, y malas relaciones con pares y familiares, lo cual indica que las mujeres víctimas de esta forma de violencia presentan más dificultades, aspecto que debería ser considerado en las campañas prevención e intervención de esta problemática.

La relación entre las emociones y las estrategias de afrontamiento ante la reprobación en estudiantes universitarios / The relationship between emotions and coping strategies in university students after a failing grade

Resumen Objetivo: Identificar las diferencias (hombres y mujeres) y la relación entre emociones y las estrategias de afrontamiento en estudiantes universitarios cuando reprueban un examen al inicio del ciclo escolar. Método: Estudio no experimental de tipo transversal con múltiples variables continuas. Participaron 1,774 universitarios mexicanos (54 % mujeres y 46 % hombres), media de edad 20.72 (DE = 2.27). Se utilizaron dos instrumentos, a saber, Escala de emociones cuando repruebas: desagrado, culpa, vergüenza, tristeza, miedo, frustración, enojo, angustia, indiferencia (α = .94); y Estrategias de afrontamiento cuando repruebas: gritar, culpar a otro, reflexionar, reprobar el examen, buscar asesoría, evitar hablar del tema, evitar pensar en eso, fingir estar bien, estar en redes sociales, escuchar música, salir con amigos, salir solo(a), contarle a mi familia (α = .88). Resultados: Se obtuvieron diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre mujeres y hombres en todos los factores de la intensidad de las emociones cuando repruebas. En cuanto a las estrategias de afrontamiento más utilizadas tanto para las mujeres (M = 2.96, DE = 0.66) como en los hombres (M = 2.69, DE = 0.67) fueron las Asertivas y de autoconstructivas y las menos las Agresivo-defensivas; en cuanto a las estrategias de Evasión si bien no mostraron diferencias entre hombres (M = 2.00; DE = 0.78) y mujeres (M = 2.11; DE = 0.84), sin embargo, en las correlaciones de la muestra en general fueron las que tuvieron las puntuaciones más altas con las emociones (r = .53**), seguidas de las Búsqueda de soluciones (r = .38**) y Asertivas y autocríticas (r = .42**). Al realizar los análisis contrastados entre mujeres (r = 50**) hombres (r = .56**) nuevamente las estrategias de Evasión fueron las que más correlacionaron con los factores emocionales (r = .50**). Conclusiones: Si bien se encontraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre hombres y mujeres en la intensidad de las emociones, y fueron ellas quienes reportaron una mayor intensidad, no se encontraron diferencias en las estrategias de afrontamiento agresivo-defensivas, evasión y búsqueda de apoyo; el solicitar ayuda es un indicativo de que son capaces de reconocer que tienen un problema que sobrepasa sus habilidades en ese momento. Conocer qué emociones experimentan y qué estrategias de afrontamiento utilizan los universitarios cuando reprueban, proporciona al personal encargado de apoyarlos el poder implementar acciones que les ayuden a afianzar y darle continuidad a su trayectoria académica. Es importante apoyar a los estudiantes, ya que las estrategias de afrontamiento que mostraron mayores correlaciones con las emociones fueron las de evasión, lo cual puede traerles consecuencias negativas como el pasar de reprobar un examen a reprobar la asignatura.

Abstract Objective: To identify the differences (in men and women) and the relationship between emotions and coping strategies in university students when they fail an exam at the beginning of the school year. Method: The study was non-experimental and cross-sectional with multiple continuous variables, in which 1,774 Mexican university students participated (54 % women and 46 % men) of mean age 20.72 years (SD = 2.27). Two tools were used. The first one was the "Emotions scale when you fail": displeasure, guilt, shame, sadness, fear, frustration, anger, anguish, and indifference (α = 0.94), and the second tool was "Coping strategies when you fail": yelling, blaming someone else, reflecting, failing the exam, seeking advice, avoiding talking about it, avoiding thinking about it, pretending to be fine, using social media, listening to music, hanging out with friends, going out alone, talking to family (α = 0.88). Results: In the tool "Emotions scale when you fail," significant differences were found between men and women in every factor and its intensity. The most commonly used coping strategies for women (M = 2.96, SD = 0.66) and men (M = 2.69, SD = 0.67) were assertive and self-constructive, and the least commonly used were aggressive-defensive. As for the evasion strategies, although they did not show differences between men (M = 2.00, SD = 0.78) and women (M = 2.11; SD = 0.84) in the general sample correlations, those strategies were the ones that had the highest scores with emotions (r = 0.53 **), followed by the search for solutions (r = 0.38 **) and assertive and self-critical (r = 0.42 **). When performing the contrast analysis among women (r = 50 **) and men (r = 0.56 **), evasion strategies were the ones that showed the highest correlation with emotional factors (r = 0.50 **). Conclusions: Although statistically significant differences were found between men and women in emotion intensity, women being the ones that showed greater intensity, no differences were found in aggressive-defensive coping strategies, evasion, and support seeking. Requesting help is an indicator that women are (1) able to recognize that they have a problem that is currently beyond their abilities to solve independently and (2) able to ask for help in order to solve problems. Knowing which emotions university students experience and the coping strategies they use when they fail, gives the support staff in charge a chance to implement actions that help strengthen them and move forward with their academic journey. It is important to support students, because the coping strategies that showed the highest correlation with emotions were the evasion strategies, which can have further negative consequences such as going from failing an exam to failing the subject.

Emotional responses and coping strategies in adult Mexican population during the first lockdown of the COVID-19 pandemic: An exploratory study by sex / Respuestas emocionales y estrategias de afrontamiento en población adulta mexicana durante el primer confinamiento por la pandemia de COVID-19: un estudio exploratorio por sexo

Abstract Introduction The COVID-19 outbreak has involved a permanent and significant increase of fear and worries related to the virus and the measures taken to avoid contagion, such as confinement. Objective To explore the relationship between emotional responses and coping strategies used to face the first confinement among the Mexican adult population and inquire about differences by sex. Method An exploratory study was conducted through a self-administered online survey. It included questions about sociodemographic characteristics, emotions about pandemic information, and coping strategies. An informed consent form was presented prior to data collection. Chi square and Kruskal-Wallis were performed for bivariate analyses. Results A total of 2,650 participants completed the survey (21.6% were men). Significantly more men than women reported feeling calm (p < .001), hopeful (p = .011), and indifferent (p = .002). In contrast, more women, compared to men significantly reported feeling worried (p < .001), fearful (p < 0.001), and sad (p < .001). More women reported being emotionally close to other people (p = .027), seeking help from friends and family to share emotions and concerns (p < .001), and they frequently prayed as a coping strategy regardless of their emotions (p = .005). Discussion and conclusion While women are the least affected by the contagion and their symptoms are milder than in men, they present the most negative emotions, particularly of worry, but they also used more caring and helpful behaviors in comparison with men. These results can serve as a basis for developing research with a gender perspective that delves into the differences by sex found in this study.

Resumen Introducción El brote de COVID-19 ha implicado un aumento significativo y permanente en el miedo y las preocupaciones relacionadas con el virus y las medidas de mitigación, como el confinamiento. Objetivo Explorar la relación entre emociones y estrategias de afrontamiento utilizadas durante el primer confinamiento en población adulta mexicana e indagar sus diferencias por sexo. Método Estudio exploratorio mediante una encuesta en línea autoadministrada. Se obtuvo el consentimiento informado antes de recopilar la información. Se utilizó estadística no paramétrica para los análisis bivariados. Las respuestas de estrategias de afrontamiento se analizaron como variables cuantitativas y se reportaron las medias. Resultados Un total de 2,650 participantes completaron la encuesta (21.6% fueron hombres). Significativamente, más hombres que mujeres informaron sentirse calmados (p < .001), esperanzados (p = .011) e indiferentes (p = .002). Más mujeres, en comparación con los hombres, informaron sentirse significativamente preocupadas (p < .001), temerosas (p < .001) y tristes (p < .001). Más mujeres informaron estar emocionalmente cercanas a otras personas (p = .027), buscar ayuda de amigos y familiares para compartir emociones y preocupaciones (p < .001) y utilizar frecuentemente la oración como una estrategia de afrontamiento (p = .005). Discusión y conclusión Aunque las mujeres son las menos afectadas por el contagio en comparación con los hombres, son las que presentan las emociones más negativas, particularmente de preocupación. Sin embargo, también han utilizado más comportamientos de cuidado y ayuda. Estos resultados pueden servir como base para desarrollar investigación con perspectiva de género que profundice en las diferencias por sexo encontradas en este estudio.

Sufrimiento psicológico en hombres y mujeres con síntomas de depresión / Psychological suffering in men and women with symptoms of depression

Resumen El objetivo del presente estudio descriptivo comparativo era determinar si existían diferencias en la expresión de sufrimiento psicológico en una muestra de 269 personas con edades entre los 18 y 58 años (M= 31.2), distribuidas en 4 grupos de acuerdo con el sexo y el reporte o no de síntomas de depresión. Para evaluar sufrimiento se utilizó la Entrevista de Percepción del Paso del Tiempo, el Cuestionario de Depresión de Hombres, la Escala Zung de Depresión para las mujeres y la Escala de Salud Mental Self Reporting Questionare (SRQ). Se utilizó el estadístico ANOVA para determinar la diferencia de medias y un análisis pos hoc para identificar la dirección de la diferencia. Los resultados indican que, aunque las mujeres reportaron puntajes más altos en la escala de depresión, los hombres reportan significativamente más sufrimiento psicológico, y que este es independiente del reporte del puntaje de depresión obtenido.

Abstract The hardiness is a variable of great importance in the protection of health, so the validation and adaptation of instruments to evaluate it are necessary. The objective of the research was to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Hardiness Questionnaire (non-work version) for a sample of the Cuban population. An instrumental study was carried out based on the quantitative research paradigm. The sample selection was made based on a cluster sampling that included 400 subjects residing in six provinces of the country. The standard age chosen was 48 (±14.7) ; 54.5 % of the simple was for females. Three models were estimated, the one who showed better scores was the trifactorial one (control, implication and challenge) with a factor of a second order (hardiness) reduced from the elimination of two reactive. Some acceptable figures of reliability were obtained, both global (a=0.83) and as in each dimension: control and challenge (a=0.77) and implication (a=0.70). The recurrent validity brings evidence of the value of the subscales control and commitment.

Identifying fear-evoking pictures from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS) in a Chilean sample / Identificando un conjunto de imágenes provocadoras de miedo del International Affective Picture System (IAPS) en una muestra chilena

the goal of this study was to identify a valid set of fear-evoking pictures from IAPS images (Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 2008) in a Chilean Sample. To do so, categorical and dimensional ratings of pictures made by our participants were analyzed, considering potential sex differences. We also evaluated potential transcultural differences by comparing our results with the results of Barke, Stahl, & Kröner-Herwig (2012), whose methodology was followed in the present study, but incorporating new statistical criteria for the valid identification of pictures that evoke fear. Sixty Chilean volunteers (30 women) with a mean age of 22.3 years rated 146 pictures of the LAPS regarding to the choice of discrete emotions and the ratings of valence, arousal and dominance. Six pictures were identified that evoked fear significantly more than any other emotion. Compared to the German sample, the Chilean group evaluated images with more arousal and valence.

El objetivo del presente estudio fue identificar, en una muestra chilena, un conjunto válido de imágenes provocadoras de miedo a partir de un conjunto de imágenes del IAPS (Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 2008). Para ello, se analizaron las calificaciones categoriales y dimensionales de las imágenes observadas por 60 participantes, evaluando la existencia de diferencias en función del sexo del examinado. Asimismo, se estudiaron posibles diferencias transculturales, comparando los resultados obtenidos con los hallazgos de Barke, Stahl y Kröner-Herwig (2012), cuya metodología fue similar a la utilizada en este trabajo. Así, 60 voluntarios chilenos (30 mujeres) con una media de 22,3 años, puntuaron 146 imágenes del IAPS respecto a la elección de las emociones y las calificaciones de valencia, excitación y dominio. Se identificaron seis imágenes que provocaron más miedo que cualquier otra emoción. En comparación con la muestra alemana, el grupo chileno evaluó las imágenes con mayor excitación y valencia.

Method Effects and Gender Invariance of the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale: A Study on Adolescents / Efectos de Método y Estabilidad entre Sexos de la Escala de Autoestima de Rosenberg: Un Estudio en Adolescentes

Abstract: Rosenberg's self-esteem scale has been extensively used in all areas of psychology to assess global self-esteem (Rosenberg, 1965, 1979). Its construct validity, and specifically its factor structure, has almost from the beginning been under debate. More than four decades after its creation the cumulated evidence points that the scale measures a single trait (self-esteem) but confounded by a method factor associated to negatively worded items. The aim of the study is to examine the measurement invariance of the RSES by gender and test potential gender differences at the latent (trait and method) variable level, while controlling for method effects, in a sample of Spanish students. A series of completely a priori structural models were specified, with a standard invariance routine implemented for male and female samples. The results lead to several conclusions. Conclusions: a) the scale seem gender invariant for both trait and method factors; b) there were small but significant differences between males and females in self-esteem, differences that favored male respondents; and c) there were statistically non-significant differences between men and women in the method factor's latent means.

Resumen: La Escala de Autoestima de Rosenberg (EAR) ha sido utilizada extensamente en todas las áreas de la Psicología para evaluar la autoestima (Rosenberg, 1965, 1979). Su validez de constructo, y particularmente su estructura factorial, ha estado en debate casi desde que fue construida. Más de cuatro décadas después de su creación, la evidencia acumulada señala que la escala evalúa un solo rasgo (autoestima), aunque se confunde con un método factorial asociado de manera negative con reactivos verbales. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar la estabilidad de la medición de la EAR entre sexos y poner a prueba potenciales diferencias entre los mismos en un nivel latente de la variable (rasgo y estado), controlando efectos de método, en una muestra de estudiantes españoles. Se especificaron una serie de modelos estructurales a priori, con rutinas implementadas de invarianza estándar para muestras de hombres y mujeres. Los resultados llevan a diferentes conclusiones: a) La escala parece ser invariable ante el sexo tanto para factores de rasgo como de estado; b) existieron diferencias pequeñas, pero significativas, entre hombres y mujeres en autoestima, favoreciendo ligeramente a los hombres; y, c) no existieron diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre hombres y mujeres en las medias de la variable latente del factor.

Diferencias neuropsicológicas, biográficas, psicológicas, familiares y comunitarias, entre adolescentes con y sin trastorno disocial / Neuropsychological, biographic, psychological, familiar, and communities differences between female and male adolescents with and without conduct disorder

El objetivo del estudio que se informa fue comparar un grupo de adolescentes de ambos sexos que cumplían los criterios diagnósticos de trastorno disocial (TD), entre sí y con respecto a un grupo de adolescentes de ambos sexos sin TD, en un conjunto de variables neuropsicológicas, biográficas, psicológicas / conductuales, familiares y comunitarias. Asimismo, se comparó la frecuencia general y específica de las conductas disociales reportadas por los participantes con TD. Todos los participantes tenían entre 11 y 18 años de edad. Los adolescentes con TD (60 varones y 11 mujeres) fueron seleccionados en tres instituciones reeducativas de libertad vigilada, mientras que los adolescentes sin TD (74 varones y 25 mujeres), en un centro de capacitación laboral para adolescentes de escasos recursos. Las mujeres con TD reportaron castigos físicos severos más frecuentemente que los varones con TD, aunque a una edad mayor que éstos, presentando mayores puntuaciones en Neuroticismo y menores en Retroalimentación personal, así como una frecuencia mayor de conductas disociales. Las comparaciones por sexo revelaron que tanto los varones como las mujeres con TD, comparados con los adolescentes sin TD, presentaron puntuaciones más altas en Extroversión y un mayor consumo de sustancias psicoactivas, cambios y expulsiones escolares, escapadas del hogar, pensamientos suicidas y una menor edad de consumo de marihuana. Sin embargo, las mujeres con TD evidenciaron puntuaciones mayores en Machismo y menores en Empatía, Fluidez fonémica y Retroalimentación personal. Estos resultados sugieren más dificultades entre las adolescentes con TD que deberían considerarse en la evaluación y el tratamiento.

Gender differences in risk behaviors for health, risk factors and symptoms of conduct disorder (CD) have not been sufficiently investigated, although knowledge of these differences help define more effective strategies for assessment, prevention and treatment. The aim of this study was to compare a group of male and female adolescents who met the diagnostic criteria of CD, among themselves and with respect to a group of male and female adolescents without CD, on a set of neuropsychological, biographical, psychological / behavioral, family and community variables identified in the specialized literature. Also, the general and specific frequency of antisocial behavior was compared between participants with CD. All participants were between 11 and 18 years old, with a mean of 16 years, and living in low socioeconomic neighborhoods. Adolescents with CD, 60 males and 11 females, were selected in three re-educational institutions of probation, while adolescents without CD, 74 males and 25 females, were selected in a job training center for low-income teenagers. The two groups did not differ significantly in age, sex and socioeconomic status. The instruments used were: Color-word Test (Golden, 1994), Neuropsychological Assessment of Children (Matute, Rosselli, Ardila, & Ostrosky-Solís, 2007), Self-Report Questionnaire of Partner Violence Incidents (Rey-Anacona, 2008), Spanish Version of Dyadic Adjustment Scale (Echeburúa & de Corral, 1998), Depression Inventory (Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1983), Masculinity and Femininity Inven tory (Lara, 1993), Scale of Empathy (Martorell, González& Calvo, 1998), Eysenck Personality Inventory (Eysenck, H. J. & Eysenck, S. G. B., 1984), Questionnaire of Child and Adolescent Self-Control (Capafons & Silva, 2001), Brief Questionnaire for Diagnosing Attention Deficit (Pineda et al., 1999) and two questionnaires developed in the research, reviewed by judges on methodology and content. An observational, descriptive, comparative, cross-sectional design was used, involving both adolescents and their mothers, implemented the following statistical tests: (a) t-test for two independent samples and effect size (Cohen's d) for interval and ratio variables, (b) Mann Whitney Ufor ordinal variables, and (c) Ji Square and Odds Ratio for nominal variables. Women with CD reported severe physical punishment more frequently than men with CD, although at an older age, and they showed higher scores on Neuroticism, and lower on Personal Feedback, as well as a higher frequency of antisocial behaviors, both aggressive and covert, and difficulties at work as a result of such conducts. Comparisons by sex revealed both men and women with CD, compared to adolescents without CD, had higher scores on Extraversion, and increased consumption of psychoactive substances, school changes and expulsions, runaways, suicidal thoughts and younger of marijuana. However, women with CD showed higher scores on Machismo, and minor in Empathy, Personal Feedback, and Phonemic Fluency than women without CD, while the mothers of men with CD reported most frequently gangs in their place of residence. These results suggest that women with CD may have a higher frequency of antisocial behaviors and antisocial profiles similar or more severe than male adolescents with CD, and both males and females have a high frequency of conditions and behaviors that undermine their physical and mental health, which may worsen prognosis, aspects that should be considered in the evaluation and treatment. They also suggest that greater importance should be provided to treatment alternatives that minimize the effect of multiple risk behaviors for physical and mental health that demonstrate these adolescents.

Razonamiento espacial y rendimiento académico / Spatial reasoning and academic achievement

Se presentan los resultados de una investigación cuyos objetivos fueron evaluar los siguientes puntos: (a) el nivel de razonamiento espacial en alumnos del Ciclo Básico Común (CBC) de la Facultad de Arquitectura, Diseño y Urbanismo de la Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), (b) la relación entre razonamiento espacial y rendimiento académico, (c) la relación entre razonamiento espacial y educación media de origen, (d) el progreso en razonamiento espacial al finalizar el CBC y (e) las posibles diferencias en razonamiento espacial y en rendimiento académico según sexo. La muestra estuvo compuesta por 596 alumnos que cursaban la materia Dibujo. Se usó un diseño cuasi-experimental de clases intactas, con pre y post-test. Resultaron diferencias significativas en el nivel de razonamiento espacial entre el comienzo y el final del CBC, consideradas como un efecto de la enseñanza. Los varones superaron a las mujeres en capacidad de razonamiento espacial. Las mujeres registraron una menor tasa de deserción, mayor incremento en los puntajes de razonamiento espacial post-test y en el rendimiento final, que se interpretan en relación con el rol del esfuerzo. El rendimiento de la primera parte del año, en combinación con el nivel de razonamiento espacial en el momento del ingreso, permitió predecir el 60% del resultado final. Se verifican diferencias en razonamiento espacial y en los índices de deserción en relación con la variable Carrera.

The paper reports an enquiry aimed at: (1) assessing the spatial reasoning level reached by students admitted to the university entrance course at the Architecture, Design and Urban Planning School of the University of Buenos Aires, (2) examining the relation between spatial reasoning and academic achievement, (3) exploring the relation between spatial reasoning and secondary schooling, (4) evaluating spatial reasoning progress at the end of the course, and (5) ascertaining possible gender - related differences in spatial reasoning and academic achievement. Current literature is reviewed, focusing on the concept of spatial reasoning, the skills involved, gender - related differences and academic achievement, with special reference to technology studies. Two prevailing trends are identified: the factorial approach and cognitive. Explanations of male spatial skills advantage stress biological or environmental aspects or a combination of both. Students' poor spatial reasoning performance at the start of university highlights the need to develop spatial competence at the lower levels of schooling, particularly in secondary school, within an integral education approach. This would en- compass all the essential dimensions of the human being, rather than concentrate on disembodied rationality. Research points to mental visualisation and graphic communication abilities as necessary components of drawing and design. Training in object manipulation, block building and the sketching of observed objects has been found to enhance performance in activities specifically related to the contents taught, although transfer to test situations would seem harder to accomplish. Spatial skills training should, therefore, become part of university curriculum, especially in the case of technology courses. The sample was made up of 596 students enrolled in the Drawing Course. A quasi-experimental pre-test post-test intact group design was used and the results were linked to gender-related attribution patterns. Students' initially low spatial reasoning level would point to secondary schooling shortcomings. Significant differences in spatial reasoning level have been observed between the beginning and the end of the course, which might be ascribed to instructional intervention, consistently with research findings on the effects of training on spatial reasoning ability. Results for the whole sample reveal that male subjects scored higher on spatial reasoning ability, but no significant gender-related differences have been detected in the case of subjects with a technologically oriented secondary education. This might be associated with gender-based differences concerning the role of specific training. Drop-out rates were lower among women, who, together with higher post-test score increases and final achievement scores would point to the part played by effort in compensating for skills deficits. Female subjects would appear to make better use of the instruction received. Spatial reasoning has been found to be a good predictor of achievement, with initial spatial reasoning level combined with first semester achievement predicting 60% of the final achievement scores. Academic achievement levels were lower than spatial reasoning ones, especially in the first test. The gap narrowed in the second, which suggests that students learned to use their ability to better advantage during the course. It is concluded that the spatial reasoning capacity of students newly admitted to university may be characterised as limited, which might pose a major hurdle to the completion of technology entrance courses. Secondary schooling should be redefined in terms of the relationship between spatial skills and the capacity to assign representational content to conceptual knowledge, which is required for the latter to become fully possessed and transferable. Far from being restricted to the sphere of technical performance, the need to integrate the conceived and the perceived is rooted in the very nature of human knowledge. A relation has been identified between differences in spatial reasoning and drop-out rates, on the one hand, and degree course choice, on the other.