Assessment of Drinking Water Catchments in Fako Division, South West Region, Cameroon

Background: Without readily available water in sufficient quantity, and pathogen-free, man's progress is hindered. Globally, 2 billion people use sources of drinking water that are faecally contaminated and not appropriate for consumption. In Cameroon and specifically in fako division, due to acute piped drinking water shortage, the population uses alternative sources (springs and boreholes). Waterborne diseases are the second and third leading weekly epidemiological disease under surveillance in Fako. To find out some predisposing factors of waterborne diseases in Fako , and to meet up with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG): 6.1, by 2030, we sort to start with an assessment of the drinking water catchments inFako, as we found paucity of studies Methods:A community-based cross-sectional survey was conducted from January to May 2018 using quantitative and qualitative approaches. An adapted WHO checklist was used for observations around catchment, then a riskassessment was done with a semi quantitative approach. Qualitative data was collected through Focus Group Discussions and In-depth interviews.Results:Of the 15 water catchments assessed, none of them met all WHO recommendations. We found that 60% haveanthropogenic activities at less than 100meters from the catchments with progressive reduction in water volume and riskof contamination. Meanwhile 20% were open springs and consumers fetch water with feet and container deepen in source, while 13.3% were surface water. There was no integrated catchment management with stakeholders in Fako Division.Conclusion:None of the catchments met WHO recommendations. An integrated drinking water management team and a periodic monitoring of these catchments is imperative.

Drinking water quality, sanitation and hygiene practices in a rural community of Sokoto State, Nigeria

Background: In many developing countries, Nigeria inclusive, water quality and the risk of waterborne diseases are critical public health concerns. Safe drinking water, sanitation and hygiene are among the five key strategies aimed at combating neglected tropical diseases. Objective: The objective of the study was to assess drinking water quality, household sanitation, and hygiene practices in a rural community. Materials and Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out at Tunga Magaji, a rural community of Wamakko local government area, which is one of the Metropolitan Local Government Area of Sokoto state. A total of 391 households participated and were selected using a multistage sampling technique. Household questionnaires and checklist were used to collect data, which were analyzed using IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version 20.0. Results were presented in tables and chart. Univariate analysis in the form of mean and standard deviation was carried out on continuous data. The categorical and grouped data were summarized using frequencies and percentage. Results: River/stream is the major source of their drinking water followed by dung well. Almost all the respondents (97.0%) perceived the water source to be safe for drinking even though more than half said the water has taste. All water samples were weakly basic and had a specific gravity of one. A tap point, dung well and borehole source demonstrated a significant coliform organisms (Escherichia coli) growth. Only 58% of the households have toilet facilities while the remaining uses different unsanitary methods. More than half (59%) reported washing hand always after toilet use and after handling children’s feces, although only 37% of them reported the use of soap and water. The most common health problem in the community was diarrheal diseases with a prevalence rate of 61%. Conclusion: Some drinking water source had significant coliform counts, and large proportion of households does not have sanitary facilities with the diarrheal disease being the major health problem.

Prevalence of household drinkingwater contamination and of acute diarrhoeal illness in a periurban community in Myanmar.

Background: A major health consequence of rapid population growth in urban areas is the increased pressure on existing overstretched water and sanitation services. This study of an expanding periurban neighbourhood of Yangon Region, Myanmar, aimed to ascertain the prevalence of acute diarrhoea in children under 5 years; to identify household sources of drinking-water; to describe purification and storage practices; and to assess drinking-water contamination at point-of-use. Methods: A survey of the prevalence of acute diarrhoea in children under 5 years was done in 211 households in February 2013; demographic data were also collected, along with data and details of sources of drinking water, water purification, storage practices and waste disposal. During March–August, a subset of 112 households was revisited to collect drinking water samples. The samples were analysed by the multiple tube fermentation method to count thermotolerant (faecal) coliforms and there was a qualitative determination of the presence of Escherichia coli. Results: Acute diarrhoea in children under 5 years was reported in 4.74% (10/211, 95% CI: 3.0–9.0) of households within the past two weeks. More than half of the households used insanitary pit latrines and 36% disposed of their waste into nearby streams and ponds. Improved sources of drinking water were used, mainly the unchlorinated ward reservoir, a chlorinated tube well or purified bottled water. Nearly a quarter of households never used any method for drinking-water purification. Ninety-four per cent (105/112) of water samples were contaminated with thermotolerant (faecal) coliforms, ranging from 2.2 colony-forming units (CFU)/100 mL (21.4%) to more than 1000 CFU/100 mL (60.7%). Of faecal (thermotolerant)-coliform-positive water samples, 70% (47/68) grew E. coli. Conclusion: The prevalence of acute diarrhoea reported for children under 5 years was high and a high level of drinking-water contamination was detected, though it was unclear whether this was due to contamination at source or at point-of-use. Maintenance of drinking-water quality in study households is complex. Further research is crucial to prove the cost effectiveness in quality improvement of drinking water at point-of-use in resource-limited settings. In addition, empowerment of householders to use measures of treating water by boiling, filtration or chlorination, and safe storage with proper handling is essential.

Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Canal in Bhimavaram Town Andhrapradesh India.

A Physico-chemical study of canal water samples collected from Upstream(CW1) midstream(CW2) and downstream(CW3) of Gostanadi Velpur canal in Bhimavaram, has been carried out for the suitability of surface water for drinking purposes, surface water was monitored for three different seasons namely, summer, rainy and winter during 2012-’13 was analyzed for pH, Turbidity, EC, TDS, Cl–, SO4 2–, NO3 –, PO4 3–, D.O, TH, Ca2+, Mg2+, F–, Na+, K+ and BOD. The analytical results show that Turbidity values of canal exceed the recommended WHO limits in all the points (Upstream midstream and downstream) with three seasons while BOD values of midstream and downstream in rainy season exceed the recommended WHO limits. This study reveals that water of Canal is polluted with Turbidity and BOD. The sampling locations of CW3 (46.00 NTU) showed higher values of turbidity during rainy season. The results also indicated that the concentrations of nitrate, phosphate, K+ and sulphate of the canal waters were low in the summer season but exhibited an increasing trend in rainy season, phosphate values were nil at the beginning of the monsoon season but whereas winter season showed a maximum value of 0.47mg/L. during the monsoon did not meet the WHO standards. The correlation analysis has proved that anthropogenic activities and percolation of domestic sewage into the canal water of the study area. The levels of parameters downstream were significantly elevated than the corresponding levels upstream. It is recommended that constant monitoring are needed to maintain water quality of the canal, which is a major source of potable water for Bhimavaram town.

Study of pond water quality by the assessment of physicochemical parameters and water quality index.

Water quality index (WQI) is a dimensionless number that combines multiple water quality factors into a single number by normalizing values to subjective rating curves. Conventionally it has been used for evaluating the quality of water for water resources such as rivers, streams and lakes, etc. The present work is aimed at assessing the Water Quality Index (W.Q.I) of pond water and the impact of human activities on it. Physicochemical parameters were monitored for the calculation of W.Q.I for the rainy, winter and summer seasons. The parameters namely pH, Total hardness, TDS, Calcium, Chloride, Sulphate, Sodium, Potassium, EC and DO values were within the permissible limits on the other hand total alkalinities and magnesium values were exceeding the permissible limits as prescribed by Indian Standards. However, the W.Q.I values in the present investigation were reported to be 83.43, 76.598 and 91.52 for different season indicating that the pond water quality is very poor and not totally safe for human consumption.

Contamination status of groundwater used as livestock drinking in beef and dairy cattle farms, Korea / 대한수의학회지

In Korea, groundwater is main water source in livestock farms. Most dairy and cattle farms have constructed their own wells for human drinking and livestock farming. However, these private residential wells have not been controlled by government and also there was scant study about livestock drinking water quality. Therefore this study was to monitor of the livestock farms' groundwater quality in Korea. Water samples were collected at 123 dairy and cattle farms and were analysed forty six substances with quality standard for drinking water approved by the Minister of Environment. Seventy eight (63.4%) of 123 samples failed to drinking water stand a test. The most frequent contaminants were nitrate-nitrogen and microbial. 22.8% (n = 28) of samples showed nitrate-N concentration of higher than 10 mg/L meant that can't be used drinking water for human and the Nitrate-N concentration analysed in the range of 0.2 to 61.2 mg/L. All of 78 failed to drinking samples had microbial problems, especially 5.7% (n = 7) of samples indicated water could be contaminated by feces. Other contaminants detected were zinc and evaporation residue. Especially detected zinc concentration (32 mg/L) was about ten times higher than standard of zinc (3 mg/L). Regression analysis indicated that groundwater pH did not influence to nitrate-N concentration but the hardness and chloride could affect to nitrate-N concentration in the groundwater. Most livestock farms were adjacent to crop farmland in Korea. This could cause contamination of groundwater with nitrate-N and pesticide that could accumulate livestock product. Moreover Heavy metal such as zinc and copper could be released from a corrosive plated water pipe in livestock farm. Put together, Korea livestock system is indoor, not pasture-based, hence livestock could be exposed to potential contaminated water consistently. Therefore on the basis of these data, appropriate livestock drinking water quality standards should be prepared to keep livestock healthy and their product safe. Further, livestock drinking water quality should be monitored continuously in suitable livestock drinking water standards.

Avaliação do processo de fluoretação nos sistemas de abastecimento de água da região de Araçatuba, São Paulo / Evaluation of the fluoridation in the water supply systems of Araçatuba, São Paulo, Brazil

O trabalho visa avaliar a efetividade da fluoretação da água de consumo nos sistemas da microrregião de Araçatuba (SP) por meio de 5.157 análises de flúor realizadas no período de 2001 a 2005. Os dados foram analisados com relação ao tipo de manancial e à estrutura dos sistemas, representada pela população dos municípios e tipo de administração. Verificou-se que 51,6 por cento das amostras não atenderam ao padrão de fluoretação e que o maior percentual de atendimento ocorreu nos sistemas operados pela Sabesp (69 por cento), seguidos pelos Grandes (52,1 por cento), estatisticamente semelhantes aos Médios (51,4 por cento), e pelos Pequenos (28 por cento). Sistemas que utilizam água superficial apresentaram desempenho estatisticamente superior ao padrão (60 por cento) em relação aos que utilizam água subterrânea (42,9 por cento). Dentre os últimos, os que exploram o aquífero Guarani foram superiores (52,3 por cento) aos outros (46,6 por cento).

This paper focuses on the drinking-water fluoridation process in Araçatuba region water supply systems by means of 5.157 fluoride concentration data from 2001 to 2005. These data were studied based on the water source, the administration and the structure of the water supply system, according to the population of the county and the type of management. Almost half of samples did not comply the fluoridation standard and the higher compliance was verified in the water supply systems operated by Sabesp (69 percent), followed by the group of Large counties (52 percent), statistically similar to the Medium ones (51.4 percent), and better than the Small ones (28 percent). The systems with surface intakes showed statistically higher performance in the compliance to the standard (60 percent) compared to the ones that use groundwater (42.9 percent). In this last group, those that explore the Guarani aquifer were superior (52.3 percent) than the others (46.6 percent).

Surveillance of quality of surface water at 3 districts An Bien, Hon Dat and Tiep Hiep of Kien Giang province

The results of analysis showed that the pH were 8.5 in 45% of drinking water samples. The rate of drinking water samples that NO2 concentrations exceeded the set standards were between 10.9% and 30% in 3 districts (An Bien, Hon Dat, and Tan Hiep). The concentrations of organic substances and NH4 also exceeded 0-15% of standards, and many samples were substandard about microorganism such as E.coli, faecal coliform (15%) with p<0.05. It’s necessary to survey and study especially the local fact in building bore-well.

Assessment and Quantitative Analysis on Comprehensive Benefits of Improvement of Drinking Water Quality in Hetian County of Xinjiang / 环境与健康杂志

Objective To assess and quantitatively analyze the comprehensive benefits of improvement of drinking water quality in Hetian county of Xinjiang Methods The incidences of water borne infectious diseases(dysentery,hepatitis,typhoid and cholera) during 1992~1998 and the effects of health education were reviewed The decreases of the costs for drinking water transportation and the saving of medical expenses were analyzed quantitatively Results 95% of the total population were benefited from the improvement of drinking water quality The incidence rates of water borne infectious diseases except dysentery revealed a decreasing trend during 1992~1998 in Hetian county The benefited population presented higher levels of sanitary knowledge and good sanitary habits By the end of 2000,the accumulative investment for water improvement reached up to 45 50 million yuan,the saving of the costs for drinking water transportation and medical expenses was from 18 64 million yuan to 42 46 million yuan and 6 60 million yuan respectively,the benefit of building water plants and the development of peasant family economy was 2 91 million yuan and 35 56 million yuan respectively The totoal direct economic benefit reached from 67 31 million yuan to 87 52 million yuan Conclusion The project of improvement of drinking water quality revealed significant social and economic benefit,which had obviously exceeded the total investment