Anthropometric characteristics of olympic female and male artistic gymnasts from 1996 to 2016 / Características antropométricas de gimnastas artísticos olímpicos femeninos y masculinos de 1996 a 2016

SUMMARY: Success in artistic gymnastics certainly depends on the morphological characteristics of the athletes, some of which are basic body height and weight. The aim of this study is to determine whether there is a statistically significant difference in body height and weight between the male and female participants on the Olympic Games from 1996 to 2016. The following variables were chosen: body weight (kg), body height (cm). The results did show significant differences between women's artistic gymnastics in body weight and height over a 20-year period. In men's artistic gymnastics we didn't find the difference. This research is important in setting comparative parameters in the selection process and sport specialization regarding morphological characteristics according to different events of gymnasts at the elite level.

RESUMEN: El éxito en la gimnasia artística depende de las características morfológicas de los atletas, algunas de las cuales son la altura y el peso del cuerpo. El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar si existe una diferencia estadísticamente significativa entre la altura y el peso corporal en los participantes masculinos y femeninos en los Juegos Olímpicos de 1996 a 2016. Se eligieron las siguientes variables: peso corporal (kg), altura corporal (cm). Los resultados mostraron diferencias significativas entre la gimnasia artística femenina en el peso corporal y la altura durante un período de 20 años. En la gimnasia artística masculina no se observó diferencia. Esta investigación es importante para establecer parámetros comparativos en el proceso de selección y la especialización deportiva con respecto a las características morfológicas, de acuerdo a los eventos en que participan gimnastas de nivel de élite.

Prevalence of the palmaris longus and its impact on grip strength in elite gymnasts and non-athletes / Prevalencia del músculo palmar largo y el impacto en la fuerza de agarre en gimnastas de elite y no atletas

In elite athletes, the palmaris longus (PL) presence has a potential contribution to hand strength, smaller reaction time, better shooting speed and power. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of PL in elite competitive artistic gymnasts and its impact on grip strength compared to a control group of moderately active non-athletes. This prospective study included 370 subjects divided in two groups (170 elite artistic gymnasts and 200 moderately active non-athletes, students of medicine). The study consisted of two clinical sets of examination: a search for the clinical presence of PL was initially conducted followed by the assessment of maximal grip strength. Standard and six additional tests were performed to confirm PL tendon absence. Maximal grip strength was measured bilaterally with an electronic hand dynamometer. Bilateral absence was more common than unilateral, predominately noted on left side in both study groups. Unilateral PL absence was correlated to decreased grip strength in students, while the opposite was found in gymnasts. The mean value of grip strength in some age groups was higher on the side where the PL was absent. The results of our study show that the presence of the PL doesn`t affect the hand grip strength in gymnasts. Due to the low incidence of unilateral PL absence, further large-sampled research is warranted to assess PL contribution to hand grip strength and to other hand functions that could be of significant importance for athletes and non-athletes.

La presencia del músculo palmar largo (MPL) en atletas de élite tiene el potencial de aportar mayor fuerza a la mano, un tiempo de reacción menor, mejor velocidad de tiro y potencia. El objetivo de este estudio fue investigar la prevalencia de MPL en las gimnastas artísticas competitivas de élite y su impacto en la fuerza de agarre en comparación con un grupo control de no atletas moderadamente activos. El estudio incluyó 370 sujetos divididos en dos grupos (170 gimnastas artísticas de élite y 200 no atletas moderadamente activos, estudiantes de medicina). El estudio consistió en dos series clínicas de examen: inicialmente se realizó una búsqueda de la presencia clínica de MPL, seguido de la evaluación de la fuerza máxima de agarre. Se realizaron pruebas estándar y seis pruebas adicionales para confirmar la ausencia del tendón del MPL. La máxima fuerza de agarre se midió bilateralmente con un dinamómetro de mano electrónico. La ausencia bilateral fue más común que unilateral, predominantemente observada en el lado izquierdo en ambos grupos de estudio. La ausencia unilateral de MPL se correlacionó con una menor fuerza de agarre en los estudiantes, mientras que en gimnastas se encontró lo contrario. El valor medio de la fuerza de agarre en algunos grupos de edad fue mayor en el lado donde el MPL estaba ausente. Los resultados de nuestro estudio muestran que la presencia de MPL no afecta la fuerza de agarre de la mano en gimnastas. Debido a la baja incidencia de ausencia unilateral de MPL, se justifica una investigación adicional de gran tamaño para evaluar la contribución de MPL a la fuerza de agarre de la mano y otras funciones de la mano que podrían ser de gran importancia para los atletas y no atletas.

Body composition and morphological limbs asymmetry in competitors in six martial arts / Composición corporal y asimetría morfológica de miembros en competidores en seis artes marciales

The aim of this study was to compare body composition (BC) and morphological symmetry differences among elite athletes (n = 132) in six martial arts (judo, karate, fencing, wrestling, taekwondo, kickboxing). Multivariate analysis of variances (MANOVA) was used to compare the following variables: absolute (FFM) and relative (FFMrel) value of fat free mass, percentage of fat mass (FMp), bone mass, protein mass, basal metabolic rate, absolute (TBW) and percentual (TBWp) value of total body water, segmental proportion of muscle mass, phase angle, and percent-age differences between the upper and lower limbs. MANOVA revealed significant differences in BC among the groups (λ = 0.01, F104, 256 = 10.01, p< 0.01, ηp2 = 0.67). No significant differences were observed for FMp, FFMrel, and TBWp (p>0.05). In all other BC variables, significant differences were detected (p<0.05). The comparison of paired differences between limbs revealed significantly greater fluid volume in the preferred arm compared to the non-preferred arm in karate and fencing athletes. Significant differences (p<0.05) in favour of the preferred leg in all combat athletes were detected. This study revealed morphological differences among practitioners of different martial arts and between paired limbs.

El objetivo de este estudio fue comparar la composición corporal (CC) y las diferencias de simetría morfológica entre atletas de élite (n = 132) en seis artes marciales (judo, karate, esgrima, lucha, taekwondo, kickboxing). Se utilizó el análisis multivariado de varianzas (MANOVA) para comparar las siguientes variables: valor absoluto (FFM) y relativo (FFMrel) de la masa libre de grasa, porcentaje de masa grasa (FMp), masa ósea, masa proteica, tasa metabólica basal, absoluto (TBW) y el valor porcentual (TBWp) de líquido corporal total, la proporción segmentaria de la masa muscular, el ángulo de fase y las diferencias porcentuales entre los miembros superiores e inferiores. MANOVA reveló diferencias significativas en BC entre los grupos (λ = 0,01, F104, 256 = 10,01, p <0,01, ηp2 = 0,67). No se observaron diferencias significativas para FMp, FFMrel y TBWp (p>0,05). En todas las demás variables de BC, se detectaron diferencias significativas (p<0,05). La comparación de las diferencias pareadas entre los miembros reveló un volumen de líquido significativamente mayor en el brazo dominante en comparación con el brazo no dominante en karate y atletas de esgrima. Se detectaron diferencias significativas (p<0,05) a favor de la pierna dominante en todos los atletas de combate. Este estudio reveló diferencias morfológicas entre los practicantes de diferentes artes marciales y entre las miembros emparejadas.

Plasma brain-derived neurotrophic factor is higher after combat training (Randori) than incremental ramp test in elite judo athletes

Elite judo demands high levels of physical and psychological skills. The brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) may be of particular interest in sports medicine for its ability to promote neuroplasticity. We investigated the plasma BDNF before and after a judo training session (Randori) and the maximal incremental ramp test (MIRT) in athletes from the Brazilian national judo team and compared the results between both exercise stimuli and sexes. Fifty-six elite judo athletes were recruited who performed each task on a separated day. Anthropometric, physiological, athletic parameters, and plasma BDNF levels were measured before and after the tasks (Randori and MIRT). The groups presented similar anthropometric and physiological characteristics at baseline for the two tasks. All athletes reached maximal performance for the tasks. Plasma levels of BDNF increased significantly after Randori and MIRT for all subjects, both men and women. When comparing both exercise stimuli, a greater increase in BDNF was observed after Randori. There was no significant difference in the delta BDNF between sexes. Our findings indicate that training specificity of sport gestures influenced the increase of blood BDNF levels.

Oxygen consumption and heart rate obtained in a ramp protocol are equivalent during exercise session of rectangular loading at ventilatory thresholds for athletes / Consumo de oxigênio e frequência cardíaca obtidos em um protocolo de rampa são equivalentes durante sessão de exercícios de carga retangular nos limiares ventilatórios para atletas

Abstract Training near or at ventilatory threshold (VT) is an adequate stimulus to improve the thresholds for sedentary subjects, but a higher intensity is necessary for conditioned subjects. The choice of cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPx) protocol has an influence on VTs identification and can reduce their reliability for exercise prescription. This study tested if VO2 and heart rate (HR) corresponding to first (VT1) and second ventilatory threshold (VT2) determined during a ramp protocol were equivalent to those observed in rectangular load exercises at the same intensity in runners elite athletes (EA) and non-athletes (NA). Eighteen health subjects were divided into two groups: EA (n = 9, VO2max 68.6 mL·kg-1·min-1) and NA (n = 9, VO2max 47.2 mL·kg-1·min-1). They performed CPx and 48h and 96h later, a continuous running lasting 1 h for VT1 and until exhaustion for VT2. The results showed that EA at VT1 session, presented delta differences for VO2 (+9.1%, p = 0.125) vs. NA (+20.5%, p = 0.012). The Bland-Altman plots for VT1 presented biases of (4.4 ± 6.9) and (5.5 ± 5.6 mLO2·kg-1·min-1) for AE and NA, respectively. In VT2, the VO2 and HR of the NA showed biases of (0.4 ± 2.9 mLO2·kg-1·min-1) and (4.9 ± 4.2 bpm). The ramp protocol used in this study was inappropriate for NA because it underestimates the values of VO2 and HR at VT1 found in the rectangular load exercise. The HR showed good agreement at VT2 with CPx and may be a good parameter for controlling exercise intensity.

Resumo O treinamento no limiar ventilatório (LV) é um estímulo adequado para melhorar os limiares em indivíduos sedentários, entretanto uma maior intensidade é necessária para indivíduos condicionados. A escolha do protocolo de teste de exercício cardiopulmonar (CPx) tem influência na identificação dos LV e pode reduzir sua confiabilidade na prescrição do exercício. Este estudo testouse o VO2 e a frequência cardíaca (FC) correspondentes ao primeiro (LV1) e segundo limiar ventilatório (LV2) determinados durante um protocolo de rampa foram equivalentes àqueles observados em exercícios de carga retangular nas mesmas intensidades em atletas corredores de elite (AE) e não atletas (NA). Dezoito homens saudáveis foram divididos em dois grupos: AE (n = 9, VOmax 68,6 mL·kg-1·min-1) e NA (n = 9, VO2max 47,2 mL·kg-1·min-1). Eles realizaram CPx e 48h e 96h depois, uma corrida contínua com duração de 1 h para o LV1 e até a exaustão para o LV2. O grupo AE na sessão LV1, apresentou diferenças de delta para VO2(+ 9,1%, p = 0,125) vs. NA (+ 20,5%, p = 0,012). Bland-Altman para LV1 apresentaram vieses de (4,4 ± 6,9) e (5,5 ± 5,6 mLO2·kg-1·min-1) para AE e NA, respectivamente. No LV2, o VO2 e a FC do NA apresentaram vieses de (0,4 ± 2,9) mLO2·kg-1·min-1 e (4,9 ± 4,2) bpm. O protocolo de rampa utilizado foi inadequado para NA pois subestima os valores de VO2 e FC em LV1 encontrados no exercício de carga retangular. A FC exibiu boa concordância no LV2 e pode ser um bom parâmetro para controlar a intensidade do exercício.

Can the elite slalom kayaker's performance be correlated with anthropometric, nutritional, genetic, psychological as sleep traits?

Abstract AIMS The aims of this study were to investigate and characterize the anthropometric, nutritional, genetic, psychological and sleep variables of slalom kayakers, and to verify the correlation of these variables with the slalom kayakers' performance. METHODS Ten elite Brazilian team slalom kayakers participated of this study. Nutritional analysis was made by the Food Record (three days), 24 Hour Dietary Recall and Food Frequency Questionnaire. The ACE I/D, AGTMet235Thr, ACTN3R577X and BDKRB2+9/-9 were genotyped for genetic profile. The Profile of Mood States (POMS) and Sports Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT) were applied to investigate the psychological variables. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), Epworth Sleep Scale (ESS) and Morningness-eveningness questionnaire (MEQ) were used for sleep traits analysis. Performance trials were performed on a white-water course with 24 gates, and finish time was considered as the variable related to performance. RESULTS Significant correlations were obtained between Performance Time Trial and %Fat (r=0.77), Energy (r=-0.75), Protein (r=-0.76), Carbohydrate (r=-0.72), Vitamin B6 (r=-0.87), Vitamin A (r=-0.82), Thiamine (r=-0.77), Riboflavin (r=-0.71), Magnesium (r=-0.86) and Phosphorus (r=-0.74) intake, besides the Fatigue mood domain (r=0.73) and the SCAT score (r=0.67). Athletes genotyped with the I, T, R and +9 alelle also presented better performances. CONCLUSIONSIn summary, the novel results provided by this study reinforce the necessity of considering several aspects during athlete development in order to achieve better performance in competitions.

The Timing of Return to Sports after Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction in Elite Athletes: A Study Based on Isokinetic Knee Muscle Strength and Multiple Hop Tests / 中国运动医学杂志

Objective To compare the knee function recovery at different times of returning to sport after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction(ACLR) among elite athletes using knee isokinetic muscle strength test and various hop test.Methods Forty-one elite athletes(14 males,27 females,mean age 22.6 ± 4.1 years) undergoing ACLR between January 2013 and September 2014 were chosen from the database of the National Institute of Sports Medicine and Shanghai Huashan Hospital.Rehabilitation was performed using the same protocol by professional physiotherapists and trainers,who recorded the time of returning to sport of each athlete.One week prior to the scheduled return,bilateral knee isokinetic muscle strength test(test value:peak torque;angle velocity:60°/s,180°/s;motion:flexion,extension) and four hop tests(single hop for distance,side-to-side hop,up-down hop and 8 hop) were applied with the limb symmetry index(LSI) calculated.The athletes were then grouped by their returntime referring to surgery into the premature group(6～8 months),timely return group(9～12 months) and delayed group(over 12 months).The tests results were recorded and compared among the three groups.Results Fourteen athletes were selected into the premature group,with 19 in the timely group and 8 in the delayed group.The average LSI of 60°/s flexion peak torque of the premature group (87.4％ ± 7.5％) was significantly lower than the timely group(95.8％ ± 6.6％) and the delayed group(96.0％ ± 2.4％) (P＜0.01).Significant differences were observed between the premature group and delayed group regarding the 60° extension peak torque(85.8％ ± 9.4％ and 94.8％ ± 4.8％,P＜0.05),180°/s flexion peak torque(90.7％ ± 8.7％ and 101.4％ ± 6.8％,P＜0.05),and 180°/s extension peak torque (90.6％ ± 5.2％ and 97.8％ ± 5.6％,P＜0.05).The average LSL of the premature group at single hop for distance,side-to-side hop and up-down hop(93.A％ ± 8.5％,84.7％ ± 7.3％ and 112.5％ ± 5.7％) was significantly lower than that of the timely group(95.7％ ± 6.0％,104.2％ ± 4.3％ and 105.3％ ± 7.9％) and the delayed group regarding(98.1％ ± 1.9％,104.7％ ± 4.0％ and 106.3％ ± 7.4％) (P＜0.01 for all).The relative peak torque of 60°/s extension of the premature group(2.48 ± 0.58 Nm/kg) was significantly lower than the delayed group(3.21 ± 0.51 Nm/kg) (P＜0.01).Conclusions For elite athletes,returning to sport within 9 months after ACLR results in insufficient restoration of the knee function.Delayed return to sport doesn't improve the outcomes of hop tests,but can enhance the maximum extension torque peak,which needs further study.

Discrimination of different body structure indexes of elite athletes in combat sports measured by multi frequency bioimpedance method / Discriminación de diferentes índices de estructura corporal de atletas de elite en deportes de combate medidos por el método de bioimpedancia de múltiples frecuencias

In order to achieve high results in sports, it is necessary to provide an adequate status of an athlete in according to various factors, among which the body structure is one of greater importance. The aim of this research is to define the most discriminated indicators of body structure indexes, thanks to which a specific change of physical structure can be observed according to a branch of sport and type of combat sport. Variables in the research were: body height, body mass, body mass index, free fat mass index, fat mass index, protein mass index, skeletal muscle mass index, percent of body fat, percent of skeletal muscle mass and protein fat index. The measuring of the body composition is realized by using multichannel segmental bioimpedance with InBody 720 apparatus, applied on the total of 112 male high level senior-age athlete members of different national team's member of Republic of Serbia (62 judokas, 29 Greco-Roman style wrestlers and 21 karatekas). The discriminative analysis has shown that subsamples of the athletes statistically differ in morphology on Wilks' lambda level (0.435, p = 0.000), and that following variables have the highest discrimination compared to athlete respondents in sport function: percent of skeletal mass (0.34), percent of body fat (0.28) and protein fat index (0.26), as the first isolated factor (p = 0.000) by which is explained 86.3 %, that is body weight (0.74), skeletal muscle index (0.73), protein mass index (0.72), body mass index (0.72) and free fat mass index (0.70), as the second factor (p = 0.030) by which 13.7 % variability of measured body structure space is explained. By establishing body structure models of judokas, wrestlers and karatekas for variables examined and by using modern technological method of measuring (InBody 720, 2008) we got new information that characterize specificity of the sport, which all contribute to spreading and improving already existing knowledge in the sports sciences and sport body morphology area.

Para obtener logros deportivos de alto nivel, es necesario conseguir el estatus adecuado dependiendo de varios factores, entre los cuales destaca el factor morfológico. El objetivo de este estudio fue definir los indicadores más discriminantes de la composición corporal o índices morfológicos, por lo cual se puedan monitorear los cambios específicos en la estructura del cuerpo en relación con la rama del deporte y el tipo de deportes de combate. Las variables del estudio fueron: altura del cuerpo, masa corporal, índice de masa corporal, índice de masa grasa, índice de proteína masa, índice de masa del músculo esquelético, porcentaje de grasa corporal, porcentaje de masa del músculo esquelético y el índice grasa proteína. La medición de la composición corporal fue realizada utilizando la bioimpedancia segmentaria multicanal con Inbod café 720 sobre una muestra de 112 deportistas de sexo masculino de categoría sénior, miembros nacionales seleccionados de la República de Serbia (62 practicantes de judo, 29 practicantes de lucha grecorromana y 21 practicantes de karate). El análisis discriminativo demostó que las submuestras de los atletas en general difieren significativamente en la morfología a nivel de lambda de Wilks ­ 0.435, (p = 0.000), y que las siguientes variables tienen la mayor discriminación en relación con la prueba de los atletas en la función del deporte: porcentaje de la masa esquelética (0.34), porcentaje de grasa corporal (0,28) y el índice de grasa proteína (0.26), como el primer factor aislado (p = 0.000), lo que explica 86,3 %, respectivamente la masa corporal (0.74), el índice de músculo esquelético (0,73), el índice de proteína de masa (0,72), índice de masa corporal (0,72), e índice de masa libre de grasa (0,70), como el segundo factor (p = 0,030), lo que explica 13,7 % de las mediciones espaciales de variabilidad. Al definir los módulos morfológicos de los practicantes de judo, karate y lucha grecorromana para las variables investigadas y usando el método tecnológico de medida más nuevo (InBody 720), hemos obtenido nuevas informaciones que caracterizan las especificidades de los deportes, lo que contribuye a la ampliación y el desarrollo de los conocimientos anteriores sobre dicho asunto.

Quality of life of Brazilian wheelchair tennis athletes across competitive and elite levels

Abstract Aims This study aimed to identify Brazilian wheelchair tennis athletes' quality of life and to compare the perception scores between competitive and elite athletes. Methods Participants were wheelchair tennis athletes (N = 31) from Brazil (males = 25, females = 6) divided into two groups: competitive and elite. Data was collected using the Brazilian version of the WHOQOL-Bref. The WHOQOL-Bref asks two general questions, and is thereafter divided into four main domains: 1) physical, psychological, social, and environment, which give us an understanding of their overall quality of life perception. Results The results showed that overall, 29 out of the 31 athletes perceived their quality of life positively, regardless of the competitive level. However, statistically higher perceptions were found in the physical domain and the total score of quality of life of the elite group. Conclusion The findings of this study suggest that even though participation in high-performance adapted sports may offer a stressful and exhausting environment, elite wheelchair tennis athletes from Brazil perceive themselves as having a better QoL than competitive athletes.(AU)

Rapid Weight Loss Practices among Elite Combat Sports Athletes in Malaysia

Introduction: This study aimed to (i) determine rapid weight loss (RWL) practices among Malaysian elite combat sports athletes and (ii) examine the relationship between the characteristics of athletes, self-reported history of weight loss, perceived influence on weight loss and RWL practices. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study conducted at the Malaysian National Sports Institute among elite combat sports athletes (n=40) recruited via a convenience sampling method. The athletes completed a self-administered validated Rapid Weight Loss Questionnaire. Each response was provided a score and the total RWL score corresponded to the aggressiveness of weight management methods. Partial correlations were used to assess the relationships between total RWL score and independent variables. Results: The prevalence of RWL among the athletes was high (92.5%). Training with rubber or plastic suits (62.2%) and meal-skipping (27.0%) were the most common RWL techniques practised by the respondents. Aggressive weight-cutting as depicted by a higher total RWL score that correlated with most weight ever lost, duration taken to lose weight, influence of training colleagues and coaches, BMI, current weight and post-competition weight regain (all p<0.05). In contrast, negative correlations were seen between total RWL score, and the age at which the athletes began competing (p<0.001), duration of competition (p<0.001), age at first participation (p<0.05), duration of participation (p<0.05) and influence of nutritionists on weight loss (p<0.05). Conclusion: A high prevalence of aggressive weight loss among elite combat sports athletes and its association with perceived influence of sports professionals, colleagues and actual weight-related characteristics are of great concern.

Genética, performance física humana e doping genético: o senso comum versus a realidade científica / Genetics, human physical performance and gene doping: the common sense versus the scientific reality

Atletas de elite são reconhecidos como fenômenos esportivos e o potencial para atingir níveis superiores de performance no esporte está parcialmente sob o controle de genes. A excelência atlética é essencialmente multifatorial e determinada por complexas interações entre fatores ambientais e genéticos. Existem aproximadamente 10 milhões de variantes genéticas dispersas por todo o genoma humano e uma parcela destas variantes têm demonstrado influenciar a responsividade ao treinamento físico. Os fenótipos de performance física humana parecem ser altamente poligênicos e alguns estudos têm comprovado a existência de raras combinações genotípicas em atletas. No entanto, os mecanismos pelos quais genes se interagem para amplificar a performance física são desconhecidos. O conhecimento sobre os genes que influenciam a treinabilidade somado ao potencial uso indevido dos avanços da terapia gênica, como a possível introdução de genes em células de atletas, fez surgir o termo doping genético, um novo e censurado método de amplificação da performance física, além dos limites fisiológicos. Aumentos na hipertrofia muscular esquelética e nos níveis de hematócrito estão sendo conseguidos através da manipulação da expressão de genes específicos, mas a grande parte das impressionáveis alterações foi obtida em experimentação com animais de laboratório. A compreensão dos resultados científicos envolvendo genética, performance física humana e doping genético é uma difícil tarefa. Com o propósito de evitar a contínua má interpretação e propagação de conceitos errôneos, esta revisão, intencionalmente, vem discutir as evidências científicas produzidas até o momento sobre o tema, permitindo a compreensão do atual "estado da arte".

Elite athletes have always been referred to as sports phenomena and their potential to reach higher performance levels in sports, far beyond normal range, is partially under the control of genes. Athletic excellence is essentially multifactorial and it is determined by a complex interaction of environmental and genetic factors. There are almost 10 million genetic variants spread throughout the entire human genome and some of them have been proven to affect physical training responsiveness. The human performance phenotypes seem to be highly polygenic and previous research has found rare genotype combinations in elite athletes. Nevertheless, the mechanisms through which genes interact with each other in order to improve physical performance are unknown. The knowledge on genes that influence trainability added to the potential misuse of advances in gene therapy, such as the possible introduction of genes into athlete cells, gave way to the terminology gene doping, a new and prohibited method of enhancing athletic performance above physiological limits. Increase in skeletal muscle hypertrophy and haematocrit levels has been achieved by the manipulation of the expression of specific genes, but great part of impressive changes in these phenotypes have been obtained using laboratory animals. The understanding on the scientific studies enclosing genetics, human physical performance and gene doping is an intricate task. This review intentionally highlights the scientific evidence that has been produced so far on this popular topic, with the purpose to avoid continuous misinterpretation and spreading of faulty concepts allowing hence the comprehension on the current "state of the art" in this field.

Anti-doping education and dietary supplementation practice in Korean elite university athletes

This study was conducted to investigate relationships and gender differences in dietary supplement (DS) and oriental supplement (OS) prevalence as well as anti-doping awareness during training and the game period. Korea National Sport University athletes (343 male and 136 female) participated in this study and completed DS and OS practice and anti-doping awareness questionnaires. Forty-six percent of athletes used DS during the training period, and there was significantly higher DS use in females (53%) compared to males (43%) (P < 0.05). Twenty-eight percent of athletes used OS, and there was significantly higher OS use in females (35%) than males (26%) (P < 0.05) during the training period. The primary reason of DS use was to supply energy both in males (36%) and females (28%). The main reason for male athletes' OS use was to supply energy (41%). Meanwhile, the reasons for female athletes' OS use were to supply energy (23%), to maintain health (19%), and to improve recovery ability (20%), which showed a significant gender difference (P < 0.05). Athletes rated their perceived degree of satisfaction, perceived importance, and beliefs in efficacy of DS and OS use all over 50% during the training period, and no gender differences were detected. In a comparison between athletes educated about anti-doping (at least more than one time) and non-received athletes, DS and OS use during the training period was 2.30 (1.47-3.60) and 1.71 (1.03-2.82), respectively. DS and OS use immediately before the game period was 2.38 (1.50-3.80) and 3.99 (1.20-13.28), respectively. Elite athletes' anti-doping education was highly related to increased DS use during the training period and immediately before the game. Although elite athletes use various DS and OS during the training period and before the game period, doping education for elite athletes is related with DS and OS use during the training period and before the game.

Isokinetic Strength of Quadriceps and Hamstring, Hamstrings/Quadriceps Ratios in Elite Sports Athletes / 체질인류학회지

The purpose of this study was to investigate of isokinetic strength of quadriceps and hamstring, hamstrings/quadriceps ration in elite sports athletes to provide the data for injury prevention, fitness level evaluation and training methodology. The subjects selected for this study were 104 elite sports athletes. They didn't have any medical problem. Isokinetic peak torque, flexor/extensor ratio at 60 deg/sec of the knee extension and flexion were measured using an cybex 770. The data were analyzed utilizing One way ANOVA. The level of statistical significance was set at p<.05. On the basis of the results analyzed in this study, conclusion were drawn as follow: 1. Dominant knee extension peak torque (Nm) were no significant differences in man but man elite athletes were higher than woman elite players in 60 deg/sec (p<.05). 2. Dominant knee extension peak torque (% body weight) of man elite athletes were higher than woman elite players in 60 deg/sec except only man volleyball athletes (p<.05). 3. Dominant knee flexion peak torque (Nm) were no significant differences in man but man elite athletes were higher than woman elite players in 60 deg/sec (p<.05). 4. Dominant knee flexion peak torque (% body weight) of man elite athletes were higher than woman elite players in 60 deg/sec (p<.05). 5. Knee flexion/extension peak torque ratio (H : Q) were no significant differences according to sex and proper H : Q ratio was 54~64%.

Differences in muscle thicknesses of male and female Japanese elite athletes / 体力科学

The pourpose of this study is to investigate the differences in muscle thickness between males and females of Japanese elite athletes. Subjects were 82 males and 65 females who were Japan candidates for the 1986 Asian and the 1988 Olympic Games 8 sports events, e, g., sprinters, middle and long distance runners, throwers, swimmers, gymnasts, volleyball players, basketball players, and oarsmen. Muscle thicknesses were measured by using B-scan ultrasound equipment with a 5 MHz transducer at the follwing sites: forearm anterior, biceps, triceps, subsucapular, abdomen, quadriceps, hamstrings and posterior calf. In results, comparison in muscle thickness between males and females were made at upper extremity (forearm+biceps+triceps), trunk (subsucapular+ abdomen) and lower extremity (quadriceps+hamstrings+calf) . Males showed siginificantly higher values in muscle thickness than females at all sites, except for trunk of distance runners and lower extremity of volleyball players. Relative values of females to males in muscle thickness were 59-84% for upper extremity, 68-89% for trunk, 84-94% for lower extremity. At upper extremity and trunk, Males indicated significantly higher values in muscle thickness per body height (muscle thickness/Ht) execpt for distance runners. At lower extremity, however, there were no siginificant differences in muscle thickness/Ht at lower between males and females except for gymnasts. Relative values of females to males in muscle thickness/Ht were 66-94% for upper extremity, 72-99% for trunk and 89-100% for lower extremity. Males showed significantly higher values in upper/lower extremity ratio of muscle thickness than females, except for sprinters and distance runners. On the other hand, females had significantly higher values in lower/trunk ratio of muscle thickness than males, except for distance runners and gymnasts. These results indicate that the differences in muscle thickness between males and females exist remarkably at upper extremity and trunk commpared to lower extremity. These anatomical differences in the degree of muscle development may be refered to genetic and/or enviromental factors.