Benford´s Law with small sample sizes: A new exact test useful in health sciences during epidemics / Ley de Benford con muestras pequeñas: una prueba exacta nueva útil ciencias de la salud durante epidemias

Abstract Benford or "first digit" law has been used successfully to evaluate epidemiological surveillance systems, especially during epidemics. Conventional statistical methods for evaluation (x2 and log-likelihood ratio) are controversial when the number of data is small (n <7). In this methodological note a new test is proposed to evaluate compliance with Benford's law with small samples, which can be used with biomedical, medical and public health data.

Resumen La ley de Benford o de los "primeros dígitos" ha sido usada exitosamente para evaluar los sistemas de vigilancia epidemiológica, en especial durante epidemias. Los métodos estadísticos convencionales para la evaluación (x 2 y razón de log-verosimilitud) son controversiales cuando los datos son poco (n<7). En esta nota metodológica se propone una nueva prueba para evaluar el cumplimiento de la ley de Benford con muestras pequeñas, que puede ser usada con datos de biomedicina, medicina y salud pública.

Emerging and re-emerging infections: threat to the world

Emerging and reemerging infections are a huge threat to the human race which can destabilize humans from the roots. It is a global problem and not a problem for any single country. 15 million deaths occur annually across the globe due to infections, and 12% of them are due to emerging pathogens. These infections are returning every year with an increased incidence rate and higher virulence. In the present era of globalization and living conditions, such as living in crowded areas increases the potential for the spread of these emerging and reemerging infections, eventually affecting public health. The most prominent challenge that poses in the face of public health officials is the achievement of global preparedness to combat these infections. Aggressive research is needed in this field to help being prepared for an attack by these infections. Global organizational cooperation, international research funding, and poverty reduction are very much necessary for taking measures against these infections.

Some challenges in progressive control of livestock originated zoonotic diseases in Pakistan-A pilot survey

Objective: To document the recent livestock related practices and possible unhygienic ways of pathogen entry. Identification of the potential risk factors for the spread of infection is important to design an evidence-based disease control programme. Methods: Rapid assessment method was adopted and a purposive sample of 60 dairy farmers were interviewed. The following factors were noted for contributing in primary and secondary transmission of zoonotic infections: (i) persons who come in close contact with animals and their secretions, (ii) management strategies of farm animals (sheds and environment), (iii) management practices adopted at farms, (iv) small scale farmers and rural livestock production systems, (v) milk collection systems. Results: This research unveiled the certain routes of zoonotic disease transmission. Certain management practices, precautionary measures and strategies were the pivotal risk factors. Conclusions: The study emphasizes the need to educate the poor livestock keepers.

Some challenges in progressive control of livestock originated zoonotic diseases in Pakistan-a pilot survey

Objective: To document the recent livestock related practices and possible unhygienic ways of pathogen entry. Identification of the potential risk factors for the spread of infection is important to design an evidence-based disease control programme. Methods:Rapid assessment method was adopted and a purposive sample of 60 dairy farmers were interviewed. The following factors were noted for contributing in primary and secondary transmission of zoonotic infections: (i) persons who come in close contact with animals and their secretions, (ii) management strategies of farm animals (sheds and environment), (iii) management practices adopted at farms, (iv) small scale farmers and rural livestock production systems, (v) milk collection systems. Results:This research unveiled the certain routes of zoonotic disease transmission. Certain management practices, precautionary measures and strategies were the pivotal risk factors. Conclusions:The study emphasizes the need to educate the poor livestock keepers.

Emerging & re-emerging infections in India: An overview.

The incidence of emerging infectious diseases in humans has increased within the recent past or threatens to increase in the near future. Over 30 new infectious agents have been detected worldwide in the last three decades; 60 per cent of these are of zoonotic origin. Developing countries such as India suffer disproportionately from the burden of infectious diseases given the confluence of existing environmental, socio-economic, and demographic factors. In the recent past, India has seen outbreaks of eight organisms of emerging and re-emerging diseases in various parts of the country, six of these are of zoonotic origin. Prevention and control of emerging infectious diseases will increasingly require the application of sophisticated epidemiologic and molecular biologic technologies, changes in human behaviour, a national policy on early detection of and rapid response to emerging infections and a plan of action. WHO has made several recommendations for national response mechanisms. Many of these are in various stages of implementation in India. However, for a country of size and population of India, the emerging infections remain a real and present danger. A meaningful response must approach the problem at the systems level. A comprehensive national strategy on infectious diseases cutting across all relevant sectors with emphasis on strengthened surveillance, rapid response, partnership building and research to guide public policy is needed.

Review of food-borne trematodiases in the Philippines

Food-borne trematodes (FBTs) are emerging infections and of substantial public health importance but are among the most ignored of the neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) in terms of attention, research and funding. A review of the status of FBTs in the Philippines based on the best available local and national information may provide a basis for the formulation of appropriate prevention and control measures most suitable for its setting. This review presents a summary of the key features of FBTs and the epidemiologic pattern of FBTs in the Philippines and on the current measures being done for infection control and prevention in other countries. Paragonimiasis, echinostomiasis, and heterophyidiasis are still prevalent in the Philippines with food preparation and hygiene practices and presence of infected intermediate hosts as major determinants of epidemiology and disease burden. Control and prevention of food-borne trematodes may be best achieved with political will, coordinated efforts among responsible public sectors, and involvement of relevant communities.

As novas facetas e a ameaça da gripe aviária no mundo globalizado / New aspects and the threat of an avian flu epidemic in a globalized world

A influenza ou, como é conhecida comumente, a gripe, é uma doença infecciosa aguda causada por um grupo de vírus (com mesmo nome) que acomete várias espécies de animais, desde felinos até aves, passando por humanos. Há cerca de 10 anos têm sido descritos, inicialmente em Hong Kong, surtos de gripe causados por vírus aviários em populações humanas. A seguir, foram descritos surtos na Holanda e no Canadá. Portanto, indaga-se: o mundo corre o risco de um novo surto semelhante ao de 1918, porém com uma população mundial quatro a cinco vezes maior? Qual a velocidade de disseminação desse vírus, visto que as viagens internacionais já não são feitas em navios lentos, mas sim em jatos supersônicos que dão a volta ao mundo em algumas horas? Antes de tudo, o que torna esse vírus tão problemático? Para nós, profissionais de laboratório, é preocupante a questão do diagnóstico etiológico dessas infecções. Como ressaltamos, os quadros de gripe podem ser causados por vários agentes. Portanto, o diagnostico etiológico, básico para intervenções terapêuticas e para que se defina a ocorrência da epidemia, passa a ter relevância ainda maior.

Influenza, or as it is best known, "flu", is an acute respiratory infection caused by a virus that affects many different animal species from felines to birds, including humans.Ten years ago, initialy in Hong Kong and after that in Holand and Canada, outbreaks of avian flu have been increasingly reported in human beings. The question is innevitable: are we in the surge of a new flu pandemic like the one we had in 1918? The perspective is even worse now that we have five times the world population and the international travels are no longer made in slow-going ships but instead in super fast jet planes. For us, laboratory professionals, the question of the laboratory diagnosis is crucial. Considering that so many different viruses are associated with respiratory infections and therapeutic measures depend on this definition, this subject assumes an even greater interest.

Epidemiology of Zoonoses

Zoonoses are diseases caused by the agents that are transmitted between vertebrate animals and human. It is the interaction between agents, host, and the environment they share that determines whether or not infection will be successful. Zoonotic diseases usually have a wide range of host and are particularly important sources of emerging new infectious diseases in human. From an evolutionary point of view, infections in humans and in other animals share common origins. Zoonotic agents are extremely variable in their host specificity and their impact on individuals and host population. The control of zoonoses depends on attempts to reduce vector populations of to limit contacts with reservoir species. In most instances, however, the control efforts require an environmental or human behavioral modification in addition to direct efforts to reduce the size of the vector population. In this article, I described the common natural history and ecologic characteristics of zoonoses, and explained why we should keep an eye on the change in zoonoses with emerging infections. And I also introduced the recent change in the incidence of notifiable zoonotic diseases among animals and humans in Korea, and the principle of control and prevention of zoonoses.