Efecto del Endeudamiento Estudiantil en Salud Mental y Bienestar Subjetivo de Estudiantes de Educación Superior de Chile / Effect of Student Debt on Mental Health and Subjective Well-being on Chilean University Students

Resumen Objetivo: Identificar en qué medida la salud mental y bienestar subjetivo son predichas por el endeudamiento por motivos de estudio en estudiantes universitarios de la ciudad de Temuco, Chile. Método: Una muestra no probabilística de 151 estudiantes universitarios de quinto año o superior de su respectiva carrera universitaria respondió a medidas de salud mental (DASS-21), de bienestar subjetivo (satisfacción con la vida y felicidad subjetiva), y del nivel de endeudamiento asumido para financiar sus estudios universitarios. Los análisis incluyeron regresiones lineales múltiples jerárquicas donde se incluyeron como variables independientes la variable género en un primer paso y el endeudamiento por créditos universitarios en el segundo paso. En cada regresión se incluyó un factor de salud mental y de bienestar subjetivo como variable dependiente. Resultados: Resultados indican que el endeudamiento por motivos de estudio predice significativa- mente satisfacción con la vida (F(2, 148) = 5,95, p = 0,003, R2Adjusted = 0,06; β =-0,16, p = 0,049), pero no predice felicidad subjetiva (p = n.s.) (factores de bienestar subjetivo), sintomatología depresiva (p = n.s.), ansiosa (p = n.s.), ni estrés (p = n.s.) (factores de salud mental). Conclusión: Resultados del estudio sugieren que los estudiantes universitarios pudieran percibir el endeudamiento estudiantil como una inversión hacia el futuro lo que pudiera operar como un factor protector de su salud mental y bienestar subjetivo.

Abstract Objective: To evaluate if debt due to university loans predicts mental health and subjective well-being in university students of Temuco, Chile. Method: A non-probabilistic sample of 151 last-year university students completed measures of mental health (DASS-21), of subjective well-being (satisfaction with life, and subjective happiness), and debt levels due to student loans. Analyses included hierarchical multiple linear regressions where gender was entered in a first step and debt due to university loans on a second step as independent variables. Each regression considered a factor of mental health or a factor of subjective well-being as the dependent variable. Results: Results show that debt due to university loans predict predicts satisfaction with life (F(2, 148) = 5,95, p = 0,003, R2Adjusted = 0,06; β =-0,16, p = 0,049), but not subjective happiness (p = n.s.) (factors of subjective well-being), nor symptoms of depression (p = n.s.), anxiety (p = n.s.), or stress (p = n.s.) (factors of mental health). Conclusion: Results of this study suggest that university students may perceive student debt as an investment which may act as a protective factor of their mental health and subjective well-being.

Programa superendividados: "uma luz no fim do túnel para quem está perdido" / Overindebtedness program: "a light at the end of the tunnel for who is lost" / Programa superendeudados: "una luz en el fin del túnel para quien está perdido"

Resumo O objetivo deste trabalho foi descrever a experiência de um projeto de extensão realizado em um Tribunal de Justiça com consumidores superendividados no período de 2015-2017. Acompanhou-se nesse período o surgimento do Programa de Prevenção e Tratamento de Consumidores Superendividados e do Centro Judiciário de Soluções de Conflito e de Cidadania Superendividados, que atenderam um total de 1.142 participantes em ações de tratamento e 1.296 pessoas em ações de prevenção (apuração em 05/07/2017), dos quais 163 foram atendidos especificamente pelas ações da extensão. Houve resultados em três vertentes: alunos, cidadãos e tecnologia social. Para os alunos, o impacto ocorreu no desenvolvimento de habilidades de atendimento psicossocial, na pesquisa com dados qualitativos e quantitativos, no treinamento e apresentação em grupo e no aprendizado de conteúdos relacionados tanto à psicologia econômica - área negligenciada no Brasil - quanto a diferentes técnicas de intervenção. O impacto para o cidadão superendividado esteve em receber atendimento em diferentes temáticas, como prevenção de recaída e tratamento do problema. Ressalta-se que o cidadão que busca atendimento no Poder Judiciário usualmente não recebe apoio psicossocial. Finalmente, o impacto em termos de tecnologia social esteve no desenvolvimento de planejamentos de intervenções replicáveis para o tratamento do superendividamento com viabilidade de implementação e baixo custo de execução. Operacionalmente, criou-se o planejamento e testes em diferentes níveis (reação e comportamento) de grupos temáticos ligados às estratégias de enfrentamento, inquérito apreciativo e autorreferentes. Todos os grupos foram criados a partir das demandas advindas das orientações psicossociais individuais. Portanto, acredita-se que o projeto de extensão cumpriu o seu objetivo.

Abstract This paper describes the experience of an extension project performed in a Court of Justice with over-indebted consumers from 2015 to 2017. Meanwhile, the creation of the Over-indebted Prevention and Treatment Program and the Judicial center of conflict resolution - overindebted has led to 1,142 participants undergoing treatment operations and 1,296 people in prevention operations total (as of 05/07/2017), of which 163 were specifically attended by the extension program. The results revealed three actionable aspects: students, citizens and social technology. For students, the most impact occurred in the development of psychosocial care skills, in qualitative and quantitative research, in group training and presentation, in learning of content related to economic psychology (a neglected field in Brazil), and in the process of learning different intervention techniques. The impact on over-indebted citizens was to receive care regarding different matters related to both relapse prevention and treatment. Citizens who seek care in the Judiciary system usually do not receive psychosocial support. Lastly, social technology impacted the development of reproducible, low-budget intervention plans for treatment of over-indebtedness. Operationally, thematic groups associated with coping strategies, appreciative inquiry and self-referrals were planned and tested at different levels for reaction and behavior. All groups were created based on the demands of individual psychosocial support. Therefore, we believe that the extension program has fulfilled its purpose.

Resumen El objetivo de este trabajo fue describir la experiencia de un proyecto de extensión realizado en un Tribunal de Justícia con consumidores superendeudados en el período de 2015- 2017. Se dieron conjuntamente en ese período el surgimiento del Programa de Prevención y Tratamiento de Consumidores Superendeudados y el Centro Judiciario de Soluciones de Conflicto y de Ciudadania Superendeudados, que atendieron a un total de 1142 participantes en acciones de tratamiento y 1296 en acciones de prevención (apurado en 05/07/2017), de los cuales 163 fueron atendidos específicamente por las acciones de extensión. Hubo resultados en tres vertientes: alumnos, ciudadanos y tecnología social. Para los alumnos, el impacto ocurrió en el desarrollo de habilidades de atención psicosocial, en investigación con datos cualitativos y cuantitativos, en entrenamiento y presentación en grupo y en aprendizaje de contenidos relacionados a la psicología económica, área descuidada en Brasil, y a diferentes técnicas de intervención. El impacto para el ciudadano superendeudado estuvo en recibir atendimiento en diferentes temáticas relacionadas a la prevención de recaída y al tratamiento. Se resalta que el ciudadano que busca atención en el Poder Judiciario usualmente no recibe apoyo psicosocial. Finalmente, el impacto en cuanto a tecnología social estuvo en el desarrollo de planeamientos de intervenciones replicables para el tratamiento del superendeudamiento con viabilidad de implementación y bajo coste de ejecución. Operativamente, se creó el planeamiento y testes en diferentes niveles (reacción y comportamiento) de grupos temáticos ligados a las estrategias de afrontamiento, investigación apreciativa y autorreferentes. Todos los grupos fueron creados a partir de las demandas emergidas en las orientaciones psicosociales individuales. Por lo tanto, se evalúa que el proyecto de extensión cumplió su objetivo.

Consumo, actitudes hacia el endeudamiento, materialismo e influencia de pares en adolescentes rurales del sur de Chile / Consumption, attitudes to the debt, materialism, and peer influence in rural teenagers from southern Chile

En la actualidad, los temas de carácter económico y financiero se han convertido en tópicos de gran importancia social, considerando los conceptos teóricos, las habilidades y actitudes que una persona debe poseer para desenvolverse de manera adecuada en una sociedad dominada por el consumo. Esta investigación tiene como principal objetivo describir las prácticas de consumo y endeudamiento informal, actitudes hacia el endeudamiento, materialismo y susceptibilidad a la influencia de los pares y en adolescentes rurales, según género y nivel socioeconómico de una comuna semi-rural de la Región de La Araucanía-Chile. El estudio se realizó en dos etapas, la primera cualitativa en la cual se realizaron entrevistas grupales y una fase cuantitativa, en la que se aplicaron instrumentos que medían cada una de las variables mencionadas; además fueron comparadas con variables sociodemográficas. Los resultados indican que las fuentes de dinero de estos adolescentes son principalmente de los padres, becas o trabajos informales. Presentan deudas informales y se caracterizan por la presencia de emocionalidad positiva vinculada al éxito de sus conductas de compra y fuertes sentimientos negativos asociados al fracaso de ello. En relación a diferencias de género, los hombres se muestran más materialistas e influenciables por sus pares que las mujeres. Los resultados del estudio reflejan los cambios sociales transversales, ligados al modelo neoliberal que han tenido que experimentar los adolescentes al insertarse en el mundo de la economía, independientemente de si provienen del mundo urbano o rural.

Due to the economic and technological globalization derived from the incorporation of the neoliberal model in Latin America and mainly in Chile, has implied the need to achieve new abilities. That is how currently economic and financial topics have been considering as social relevant issues. This points as much to the theoretical concepts as the abilities and attitudes that a person must have for his development of a suitable way in a society dominated by the consumption and in the global market. In addition, several authors suggest that consumption becomes a source for the self's construction. In this way, adolescents are being in a process of identity's definition according to their evolutionary stage, which is currently linked to consumption, they become big important subjects for the market, advertising and marketing. Thus, this research has as main objective to describe the practices of consumption and informal indebtedness, attitudes towards indebtedness, materialism and susceptibility to the influence of peers in rural adolescents by gender and socioeconomic level of a semi-rural commune of the Region of La Araucanía-Chile. The study was conducted in two stages, first a qualitative phase in which group interviews were conducted with a multiple case design and a quantitative phase with a correlation-multivariate design, where instruments were applied that measured each of the aforementioned variables; They were also compared with sociodemographic variables such as gender and socioeconomic level. The results were grouped into two phases, the first phase grouped according to three central nuclei, the first core are consumption practices, this indicates that the money sources of these adolescents are mainly from parents, scholarships or informal jobs, this is usually used in personal expenses, leisure and food. They are also characterized by considering their personal opinion, family and friends. In relation to the second core refers to the practices of indebtedness, it is characterized by the presence of informal debts, mainly with their parents, friends and family. Regarding the third core refers to the emotions related to the purchase, this is characterized by the presence of positive emotionality linked to the success of their buying behaviors and strong negative feelings associated with the failure of it. Regarding the second phase, it was found that adolescents are characterized by being more austere than hedonistic and at a gender level; men have a greater average in materialism and greater influence of their peers than women do. There are no significant differences according to Socioeconomic Level. On the other hand, there are positive correlations between materialism and peer influence and between hedonism and materialism. Finally, there are no significant differences according to ethnicity. The results show that subjects have high levels of inclusion and digital access similar to that of urban adolescents. There is also a tendency towards early debt behavior that is consistent with the national surveys' numbers. In relation to savings, the adolescents of the study shows that they give more importance to saving than urban ones, especially in the long term. In relation to the emotions related to the purchase, are a concern issue, because of how they could involve the creation of an identity based on consumption, as well as imply problems in their satisfaction with life and in their mental health. The results of the study reflect the transversal social changes linked to the neoliberal model, that adolescents have had to experience when enter to the economics world, regardless of whether they come from the urban or rural world.

Actitud hacia el consumo, ahorro y endeudamiento en titulados de una universidad pública del sur de Chile / Attitudes toward purchase, saving and indebtedness in university graduates from a public university of southern Chile

La presente investigación tiene por objeto comparar las actitudes hacia el ahorro, consumo y endeudamiento en titulados de una universidad pública del sur de Chile, a partir de su género, nivel socioeconómico y facultad de procedencia. Cuenta con un diseño cuantitativo, no experimental, ex post facto, de alcance descriptivo-correlacional y de tipo transversal. Se administraron la Escala de Actitudes hacia el Endeudamiento, la Escala de Actitudes hacia el Ahorro, la Escala de Actitudes hacia la Compra y la Escala de Evaluación del Nivel Socioeconómico ESOMAR. Además, se aplicó un cuestionario de preguntas de clasificación sociodemográfica, que fue respondido por 120 titulados universitarios de una universidad pública del sur de Chile contactados mediante el método bola de nieve. Se realizaron análisis descriptivos, pruebas de comparación de medias y medianas para dos muestras independientes para las comparaciones según género, nivel socioeconómico y facultad de procedencia (pruebas t para muestras independientes y pruebas U de Mann-Whitney),y pruebas de correlación r de Pearson para identificar posibles asociaciones entre las distintas escalas y subescalas. Los resultados permiten concluir un perfil esperable en cuanto a actitudes hacia el ahorro, endeudamiento y la compra, en titulados universitarios. En relación a las comparaciones, si bien se encontraron algunas diferencias significativas en cuanto a género y nivel socioeconómico de los participantes, resultaron más bien bajas. Finalmente, se hallaron asociaciones entre actitudes hacia el ahorro con austeridad y con racionalidad en la compra. También se encontraron asociaciones entre compulsividad en la compra con austeridad (inversamente) y con impulsividad en la compra, lo que apunta a una coherencia teórica de los constructos y sus dimensiones. Limitaciones del estudio incluyen el uso de medidas de autorreporte, lo que restringe la extrapolación de resultados a contextos fuera del presente estudio. Otra limitación corresponde al método de muestreo utilizado (bola de nieve) y tamaño muestral, lo que no permitiría generalizar los resultados a la población. A partir de los hallazgos y limitaciones, se realizan sugerencias para futuras investigaciones en alfabetización económica.

Since the decade of 1970 onward in Chile, there has been a substantial change in terms of economic behaviour, which stems mainly from the installation of a neoliberal socioeconomic model. The profound consequences of this change for the Chilean society can be seen to this day, 40 years later, and these consequences include: broader access to goods and services for segments of the population that were previously excluded and/or that were a privilege of the economic elites; the assignation of new meanings to the concepts of purchase; and saving and indebtedness. These are all key concepts for the development and comprehension the neoliberal model. Complementary, the study of university graduates' behaviour is especially relevant in this area, considering that higher education is often thought to play a substantial role in social mobility. In the Chilean context, the transformations of the educational system have favoured the expansion of the admission numbers up to the point that seven of ten Chileans that pursue a graduate degree are the first members of their family to reach this educational level. Considering the above, the present study aims to compare attitudes towards purchase, saving and indebtedness in graduates from a university in southern Chile, by gender, socioeconomic level and faculty. The study follows a quantitative, cross-sectional, non-experimental, ex-post-facto design, with a descriptive-correlational scope. A questionnaire was completed by 120 participants contacted via snowball method. The questionnaire included: the Attitudes toward Indebtedness Scale; Attitudes toward Saving Scale; and Attitudes toward Purchase Scale, a scale that evaluates the participants' socioeconomic level and other sociodemographic information to help describe the sample. Descriptive analyses were carried out, along with mean and median comparisons for gender, socioeconomic level and faculty (t tests for independent samples and Mann-Whitney U tests). Finally, correlation tests with Pearson's r test were carried out to test associations between the scales and subscales. Results showed a profile that is desirable in university graduates in terms of attitudes towards saving, indebtedness and purchase, that is: favourable attitudes toward saving, austerity (a subscale of attitudes toward indebtedness) and rationality (a subscale of attitudes toward purchase), as well as negative attitudes toward hedonism (a subscale of attitudes toward indebtedness), and compulsivity and impulsivity (subscales of attitudes toward purchase). In terms of comparison, differences were found when comparing participants by gender in terms of attitudes toward compulsivity, and by their socioeconomic level by attitudes toward austerity in the indebtedness. Both these differences, although significant, were low when considering their effect size. No differences were found when comparing the faculty to which participants belonged in terms of attitudes toward saving, indebtedness and purchase. Finally, results showed associations between attitudes toward saving and austerity and with rationality, and between compulsivity and austerity (inversely) and with impulsivity. These results highlight the need to strengthen the attitudinal aspect in higher education environments where economic literacy is carried out, aiming to prepare students for their insertion into the workforce and their role as active citizens. Limitations of this study include the subjective self-report measurements used, which are susceptible to the effect of social desirability. This limitation hinders the extrapolation of the results in terms of attitudes into actual behaviour in the real world. Another limitation comes from the sampling method used (snowball) and sample size, which does not allow to generalize the results to the population. Drawing from both findings and limitations, suggestions for future research in the subject of economic literacy and related issues are outlined.

Restos a pagar e a perda da credibilidade orçamentária / Compromisos pendientes y la credibilidad del presupuesto público / Unpaid commitments and loss of budgetary credibility

Resumo O artigo discute o uso da inscrição em restos a pagar e seus impactos na credibilidade e na transparência do orçamento público. A partir de uma tipificação dos quatro tipos de carry-over existentes na regulação brasileira, articularam-se evidências do surgimento de um "orçamento paralelo" nos três níveis de governo com aspectos de regulamentação e controle externo. A evolução dos saldos e da inscrição de restos a pagar foi captada pelos saldos dessas contas no governo federal, nos governos de 26 estados e Distrito Federal, e em cerca de 4.100 municípios. Adicionalmente, observaram-se a interpretação dada pelos Tribunais de Contas para a inscrição em restos a pagar sem lastro financeiro, assim como o nível de transparência dada pelos governos com maiores saldos de restos a pagar. Os resultados indicam que, além do crescente endividamento, a fraca regulação sobretudo dos restos a pagar não processados está reduzindo seriamente a credibilidade e a transparência do orçamento em todos os níveis de governo.

Resumen El artículo debate el uso de la inscripción en restante a pagar y sus impactos en la credibilidad y en la transparencia del presupuesto público. A partir de una tipificación de los cuatro tipos de carry-over existentes en la reglamentación brasileña, se articularon evidencias del surgimiento de un "presupuesto paralelo" en los tres niveles del gobierno con aspectos de reglamentación y control externo. La evolución de los saldos y de la inscripción en restante a pagar fue captada de los saldos de tales cuentas en el gobierno federal, en los gobiernos de 26 estados y el Distrito Federal, y cerca de 4.100 municipios. Además, se observó la interpretación dada por los Tribunales de Cuentas para la inscripción en restante a pagar sin lastre financiero, así como el nivel de transparencia dada por los gobiernos con mayores saldos de restante a pagar. Los resultados indican que, además del creciente endeudamiento, la débil reglamentación, sobre todo de los restantes a pagar no-tramitados, está reduciendo seriamente la credibilidad y la transparencia del presupuesto en todos los niveles de gobierno.

Abstract This article discusses the use of unpaid commitments and its impacts on the credibility and transparency of public finances. Based on a typification of the four types of existing carry-over in current Brazilian regulation, the article shows evidence of the emergence of a "parallel budget" in the three levels of government with regulation and external control issues. The development of the balances and enrollment of the unpaid commitments was proxied by the sum of these accounts in the Federal Government balance sheet, as well as in 26 States and the Federal District, and for 4,100 cities. Additionally, the interpretation given by the Courts of Auditors for unpaid commitments usage by governments without financial ballast was observed as well as the level of transparency given by those governments with the larger amounts of unpaid commitments. The results indicate that, besides the growing debt, the weak regulation of unverified unpaid commitments is seriously reducing the credibility and transparency of the budget at all levels of government.

Un marcador epidemiológico invisibilizado: el endeudamiento en una población afromexicana de Oaxaca / An epidemiological but invisibilized marker: indebtedness within an Afromexican town in Oaxaca

Resumen: Objetivo: Explorar las dinámicas de endeudamiento en una población afromexicana desde una perspectiva epidemiológica incluyente. Material y métodos: Estudio cualitativo mediante 75 cuestionarios, 20 entrevistas a profundidad y seis grupos focales en un proceso de acompañamiento a la Comisión Municipal de Salud en Santiago Tapextla, Oaxaca. Resultados: Los gastos catastróficos por requerimientos médicos fueron el principal rubro causal de endeudamiento, acarreando pérdida patrimonial y espirales de dependencia, con impacto en la dinámica familiar y en la evolución de la patología. Conclusiones: A pesar de su soslayo en programas sanitarios oficiales, las dinámicas de endeudamiento constituyen un marcador epidemiológico al develar condiciones de desatención estructural que expresan la jerarquización impuesta, naturalizada y patogénica propia de la colonialidad. Analizar dicho fenómeno a nivel local y global constituye una tarea de salud pública compleja, pero esencial.

Abstract: Objective: To explore indebtedness dynamics in an Afromexican town by an inclusive epidemiological approach. Materials and methods: Qualitative study through 75 questionnaires, 20 interviews to depth and six focal groups in a support process to the Municipal Health Commission in Santiago Tapextla, Oaxaca. Results: Catastrophic expenses due to insufficient medical care were the principal causal item. Indebtedness processes with patrimonial loss are dominant, generating dependence spirals of difficult resolution that impact the familiar dynamics and the pathology evolution. Conclusions: In spite of its inexistence within sanitary official programs, indebtedness dynamics constitute an epidemiological marker by the uncovering of structural inattention conditions that reflect the imposed, naturalized and pathogenic hierarchization proper of coloniality. To analyze this process at local and global levels is a complex but essential public health task.

Escala de Actitudes hacia el Endeudamiento: validez factorial y perfiles actitudinales en estudiantes universitarios chilenos / Scale Attitude toward Indebtedness: factorial validity and attitudinal profiles in Chilean university students

El número de estudiantes universitarios que presentan un endeudamiento temprano se ha incrementado en los últimos años, lo que representa un riesgo potencial para su estabilidad financiera. La presente investigación analiza la validez factorial de la Escala de Actitudes hacia el Endeudamiento (Denegri et al., 1999) y determina la existencia de tipología de perfiles actitudinales hacia el endeudamiento, en una muestra de 984 estudiantes universitarios chilenos con edades entre 18 y 25 años. Los resultados señalan la presencia de dos factores independientes denominados Hedonismo y Austeridad, a partir de los cuales se determinaron cuatro perfiles de actitudes hacia el endeudamiento llamados: austero, difuso, hedonista y ambivalente, que podrían estar a la base de comportamientos de aceptación o rechazo del endeudamiento.

The number of university students who present an early indebtedness has increased in the last years, which represents a potential risk for his financial stability. This study examined validity factorial of the Scale of Attitudes toward the Indebtedness (Denegri et al., 1999) and determines the existence of profile attitudinal typology towards the indebtedness in a sample of 984 university Chilean students with ages between 18 and 25 years. The results indicate the presence of two independent factors named Hedonism and Austerity, from which four profiles of attitudes decided towards the indebtedness named: austere, diffuse, hedonistic and ambivalent those who might be to the base of his behaviors of acceptance or rejection of the indebtedness.