Molecular Detection of Medically Important Candida species from Droppings of Pigeons (Columbiformes) and Captive Birds (Passeriformes and Psittaciformes)

Abstract Passeriformes and Psittaciformes birds and pigeons (Columba livia) are known to be reservoirs of microorganisms, and their stool allows fungi development. Since accumulated avian excreta can interfere with public health, this study aimed to perform a molecular screening of medically important Candida species in pigeon droppings in public places and birds raised in captivity. Excreta collected from captive birds (3 residences) and pigeons (4 districts) were inoculated on Sabouraud dextrose agar with chloramphenicol for Gram staining and subculture on Hicrome® Candida. Three DNA extraction methods were performed for comparison (commercial kit, in-house and by boiling) and PCR to screen 6 clinically important Candida species among the isolates. The correlation between phenotypic and molecular methods was calculated by kappa/K. Only 6 C. parapsilosis (20%) were identified from captive birds' feces among 30 isolates (80% not identified), while pigeons' feces harbored a greater diversity, with the 6 pathogenic species confirmed among 41 isolates: C. albicans (31.70%/13), C. krusei (14.63%/6), C. tropicalis (14.63%/6), C. parapsilosis (17.10%/7), C. glabrata (14.63%/6) and C. guilliermondii (7.31%/3); 100% correlation between tested methods (K = 1) for the first 3 species. Boiling DNA extraction method was fast and efficient to obtain viable DNA from Candida spp. for PCR. Our results indicate that pigeon droppings harbor more potentially pathogenic species than birds in residential captivity, which probably have non-albicans Candida less frequently isolated in infectious processes. The greater availability of nutrients may have contributed to a diversity of Candida spp. in feces from public environments.

Crecimiento del complejo Cryptococcus neoformans/ Cryptococcus gattiien extractos de excretas de palomas / Growth of Cryptococcus neoformans/Cryptococcus gattii species complex in pigeon excreta / Crescimento do complexo Cryptococcus neoformans/ Cryptococcus gattii em extratos de excrementos de pombos

RESUMEN Cryptococcus neoformans/Cryptococcus gattii son agentes etiológicos de la criptococosis, el primero tiene distribución mundial y su hábitat principal son las excretas de palomas (Columba livia), mientras que el último se ha aislado de árboles y en pocas ocasiones de heces de aves. En este estudio se comparó en condiciones de laboratorio, el crecimiento de C. neoformans y C. gattii en extractos de excretas de paloma. Se utilizaron dos extractos de heces de aves cautivas: uno de una muestra en la que se aisló C. neoformans (extracto positivo) y otro de una muestra negativa para este hongo (extracto negativo), los cuales fueron inoculados con C. neoformans y C. gattii. Los extractos permitieron el desarrollo de las dos especies y, mostraron un patrón de crecimiento uniforme en el extracto negativo, mientras que, en el positivo, el crecimiento de C. neoformans fue mayor comparado con el de C. gattii (P = 0.0001). El crecimiento de C. gattii fue menor a un pH superior a 7,5, mientras que el crecimiento de C. neoformans no mostró diferencias significativas en los dos extractos independiente de las variaciones del pH. Se necesitan más estudios para elucidar la interacción de estas dos especies en las excretas de palomas.

ABSTRACT Cryptococcus neoformans/Cryptococcus gattii are etiologic agents of cryptococcosis, the former has a worldwide distribution, and its habitat is associated with pigeon excreta (Columba livia), whereas the latter it has been mainly associated with trees and rarely from the feces of birds. In this study was to compare, under laboratory conditions, the growth of C. neoformans and C. gattii in extracts of pigeon excreta. Two extracts of captive bird feces were used: one prepared from a sample in which C. neoformans was isolated (positive extract) and one from which sample was negative for this fungus (negative extract). Under laboratory conditions, the extracts allowed the development of both species. Both showed a uniform pattern of growth in the negative extract, whereas in the positive, C. neoformans growth was significantly higher than that of C. gattii (P = 0.0001). The growth of the C. gattii was lower in positive extracts and it seems to decrease at pH greater than 7.5, whereas the growth of C. neoformans showed no significant differences regardless of pH variations. Further studies are need to elucidate the interaction between these two species in the excreta of pigeon.

RESUMO Cryptococcus neoformans / Cryptococcus gattii são agentes etiológicos da criptococose, o primeiro tem distribuição mundial e seu habitat principal é a excreção de pombos (Columba livia), enquanto o último foi isolado de árvores e raramente de fezes de aves. Neste estudo, o crescimento de C. neoformans e C. gattii nos extratos de excrementos de pombo foi comparado em condições de laboratório. Foram utilizados dois extratos de fezes de aves em cativeiro: um de uma amostra em que C. neoformans (extrato positivo) foi isolado e outro de uma amostra negativa para esse fungo (extrato negativo), que foi inoculado com C. neoformans e C gattii Os extratos permitiram o desenvolvimento das duas espécies e mostraram um padrão de crescimento uniforme no extrato negativo, enquanto no positivo o crescimento de C. neoformans foi maior em comparação ao de C. gattii (P = 0,0001). O crescimento de C. gattii foi menor a pH maior que 7,5, enquanto o crescimento de C. neoformans não mostrou diferenças significativas nos dois extratos, independentemente das variações de pH. Mais estudos são necessários para elucidar a interação dessas duas espécies nos excrementos de pombos.

Digestibilidade das dietas formuladas com diferentes níveis de L-glutamina e zinco para frangos de corte / Digestibility of the diets formulated with different levels of L- glutamine and zinc for broilers

Objetivou-se avaliar o efeito da adição de L-glutamina e zinco sobre os coeficientes de digestibilidade dos nutrientes e balanço de nitrogênio no período de 9 a 15 dias de idade. Foram utilizados 140 pintos, distribuídos em delineamento inteiramente casualizados, em esquema fatorial 2 (1 e 2% de L-glutamina) x 3 (0, 90 e 120 mg de zinco/kg de ração) e um tratamento controle, com cinco repetições com 4 aves cada. Não houve efeito da combinação de L-glutamina e zinco sobre o coeficiente de digestibilidade da matéria seca. Nos níveis 1 e 2% de L-glutamina, o zinco, influenciou de forma linear crescente e quadrática, respectivamente. O coeficiente de digestibilidade do extrato etéreo e todos os tratamentos testados apresentaram maiores valores quando comparados com o controle. O tratamento com 2% de L-glutamina combinado com 120 mg de zinco/kg de ração apresentou maior excreção de nitrogênio, menor coeficiente de digestibilidade da proteína e menor eficiência de utilização do nitrogênio. As dietas com a adição de 1 e 2% de L-glutamina associada com todos os níveis de zinco suplementar proporcionam o aumento do coeficiente de digestibilidade do extrato etéreo. O tratamento com a associação de 1% de L-glutamina com 90 e 120mg de zinco/kg e 2% de L-glutamina sem a adição zinco de propiciam a maior retenção de nitrogênio.

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of the addition of L-glutamine and zinc on nutrient digestibility and nitrogen balance in the period 9-15 days old. Were used 140 chicks, distributed in a completely randomized design in a factorial 2 (1 and 2% glutamine) x 3 (0.0, 90.0 and 120.0 mg zinc / kg diet) and control treatment, with five replications, with four birds each. No effect of the combination of L-glutamine and zinc on the coefficient of digestibility of dry matter. At levels 1 and 2% L-glutamine, zinc, influenced increasingly and quadratic linear form, respectively, ether extract digestibility, and all treatments showed higher values when compared to the control. The treatment with 2% L-glutamine combined with 120 mg of zinc/kg feed showed higher nitrogen excretion, lower coefficient of digestibility of protein and lower use efficiency of nitrogen. The diets with the addition of 1 and 2% L-glutamine associated with all levels of zinc further provide increased ether extract digestibility. The treatment with the combination of 1% L-glutamine with 90 and 120mg of zinc/kg and 2% L-glutamine, without the addition of zinc to provide greater retention of nitrogen

Zeólitas naturais na dieta de frangos de corte / Natural zeolites in broiler diet

O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o efeito da inclusão de 0,5% da zeólita natural clinoptilolita na dieta de frangos de corte sobre o consumo de água, ração e características das excretas. Foi conduzido um ensaio em gaiolas metabólicas, com frangos de corte de linhagem comercial, no período de 14 a 23 dias de idade. O experimento foi constituído de dois grupos de aves, sendo que um recebeu dieta sem inclusão de zeólitas (controle) e outro dieta com inclusão de 0,5% de zeólita (clinoptilolita) em rações isonutritivas, em um delineamento inteiramente ao acaso, com 10 repetições de 10 aves. Avaliou-se o consumo de água e de ração, nas excretas, pH, teor de nitrogênio total e umidade. A inclusão de 0,5% de zeólitas naturais na dieta não alterou (P>0,05) o consumo de água e de ração e o teor de nitrogênio das excretas, entretanto, reduziu (P<0,05) o pH e a umidade das excretas. Conclui-se que a inclusão de 0,5% de zeólitas naturais na dieta de frangos de corte reduz o pH e a umidade das excretas e pode ser utilizada como aditivo alimentar sem prejudicar o consumo de água e de ração.(AU)

The aim of this study was to evaluate the addition of 0.5% natural zeolites (clinoptilolite) to the diet of broilers and their effect on water and feed intake and excreta characteristics. The test was carried out in metabolic cages, with commercial line broilers, in the period from 14 to 23 days old. The experiment was conducted with two groups of broilers: one group received diet without zeolite inclusion (control) and the other received a diet with 0.5% inclusion of zeolite (clinoptilolite) in balanced diets, in a completely randomized design, with 10 replicates of 10 broilers. Water and feed intake, pH, total nitrogen, and moisture of excreta were evaluated. The inclusion of 0.5% of natural zeolites in the diet did not change (P>0.05) the water and feed intake and total nitrogen of excreta, nevertheless, it decreased (P<0.05) the pH and moisture of excreta. We conclude that the addition of 0.5% natural zeolites to the diet of broilers decreases pH and moisture of excreta and can be used as feed additive without compromising water and feed intake.(AU)

Storage induced changes in coliform, heterotrophic groups of bacteria and nutrient levels of human urine for its safe use in biological production.

Human urine is a potential source of various nutrients, minerals and trace elements. Its use as a fertilizer is growing popular among farmers. Here, we examined the pattern of changes in the counts of coliform, heterotrophic bacteria as well as physico-chemical characteristics of human urine during different days of storage under closed conditions at ambient temperature. We observed that after 253 days of storage under closed condition, the coliform counts were reduced significantly and remained within the safe limit to be used as fertilizer. With increase in storage period, the concentration of phosphate showed decline coupled with rise in pH, alkalinity and electrical conductance. Our study revealed that human urine can be used as safe fertilizer after 8 months of storage under closed conditions at ambient temperature ranging 25-35ºC.

Isolation of mosquitocidal bacteria (Bacillus thuringiensis, B.sphaericus and B.cereus) from excreta of arid birds.

Mosquitocidal bacteria are environmentally friendly alternatives to chemical insecticides for controlling mosquitoes and therefore, there have been tremendous world-wide efforts to identify novel mosquitocidal bacteria from natural environment. In the present study, excreta from arid-birds were analyzed for identifying mosquitocidal bacteria. The selection of sample for bacterial screening is significant, because, arid-birds are the unique living species and gathering the foods from variety of sources from environment. Out of 1000 samples examined, twelve bacterial strains were identified as mosquitocidal and the 16S rRNA gene sequence alignment depicted that these isolates belonged to Bacillus species (Bacillus thuringiensis, B.sphaericus and B.cereus). Toxicity assay against mosquito vectors have shown that these isolates are potential. The B. sphaericus VCRC-B547 (NCBI: JN377789) has shown a higher toxicity against Cx. quinquefasciatus, An. stephensi, and Aed. aegypti. Result from SDS-PAGE has shown that there was considerable difference in the protein profiles among the new bacterial isolates. Phylogenetic tree with branch length 0.05 revealed three distinct groups with homology among the closely related Bacillus strains. This study therefore throws considerable interest on the diversity of microbial organisms from arid birds and its application in mosquito control.

Sanitario seco: una alternativa para el saneamiento básico en zonas rurales / Dry toilets: a means of alternative sanitation

Objetivo Evaluar el uso de sanitario seco en una zona rural en Colombia. Método Por conveniencia se seleccionaron quince familias ubicadas en zona rural de un municipio de Cundinamarca. Con su acompañamiento se incorporó un elemento demostrativo en una de las viviendas durante cinco meses y se hizo una evaluación ex-post acerca de los aspectos técnicos y económicos asociados a su utilización. Resultados El sanitario seco posee facilidad constructiva y muestra ventajas ambientales asociadas a menor contaminación de fuentes hídricas y menor uso de fertilizantes químicos. En el municipio estudiado los costos de su construcción y funcionamiento pueden representar un ahorro equivalente a $616973456 (U$308487), frente a los sanitarios convencionales. Se encontraron barreras culturales para su utilización. Discusión En muchos países existe en el sector rural un gran porcentaje de hogares que no cuentan con un sistema de alcantarillado para disponer los residuos humanos, lo cual genera desafíos importantes a nivel de salud ambiental y el cuidado de los ecosistemas. La alternativa propuesta es una solución ambientalmente aceptable desde la perspectiva técnica y económica, sin embargo y para que alcance la cobertura necesaria para generar un impacto relevante, deben trabajarse los factores de tipo social y cultural que generan percepciones y prejuicios sobre el manejo de excretas.(AU)

Objective Evaluating dry toilet use in a rural area of Colombia. Method Fifteen families were selected by convenience sampling from the rural area of a municipality in the Cundinamarca department in Colombia. A dry (composting) toilet was installed in one house and used for demonstration purposes over a five-month period. An ex-post evaluation was made concerning technical and economic matters. Results A dry toilet is easy to construct/install and has environmental benefits associated with less contamination of water sources reduction and a reduced amount of chemical fertilizer. Dry toilets’ construction and operating costs may represent savings of Col$616973456 (US$308487) in the municipality being studied, compared to the costs involved in conventional toilet use. However, cultural barriers were found regarding their use. Discussion A large percentage of households in many countries’ rural sectors do not have a sewerage system for disposing of human waste. This situation creates significant challenges regarding environmental health and ecosystem conservation. Dry toilets represent an environmentally-acceptable solution from a technical and economic perspective; however, work is required concerning social and cultural factors producing cultural perceptions and prejudices about handling excreta to provide the necessary coverage and produce a significant impact on people’s awareness.(AU)

Determination of Four Sulfa Antibiotics in Groundwater, Soil and Excreta Samples Using High Performance Liquid Chromatography / 分析化学

A method was developed for the determination of four sulfa antibiotics in groundwater, soil and excreta using solid phase micro extraction disks coupled with high performance liquid chromatography. The influence of eluent, different solid phase micro extraction membranes on the recovery of sulfa antibiotics in groundwater was investigated and it was found that when using the mixture of methyl alcohol and 1 . 0% formic acid as eluent, HLB ( divinyl benzene-N-vinyl pyrrolidone polymer ) as extraction membranes, an optimal enrichment effect was obtained. Different pretreatment methods for the 3 kinds of samples abovementioned were also examined. It was found that the signal response values obtained by using mixture of methyl alcohol and 1 . 0% formic acid as base solution of standard or sample solution was higher 8-10 times than that by using methyl alcohol only. Under the optimal conditions, good linear relationships were obtained in the sulfa antibiotics concentrations of 0 . 005-10 . 0 mg/L with the correlation coefficients>0 . 9999;The detection limits of sulfathiazole ( ST ) , sulfadiazine ( SM ) , sulfamethazine ( SM2 ) , sulfamethoxazole ( SMX ) were 1 . 08 , 3. 56, 4. 63 and 1. 84 ng/L(S/N=3), respectively. The enrichment factors for four sulfa antibiotics were 4000 times with solid phase micro extraction disks. The RSD of matrix spiked samples were 0. 1%-0. 4%(n=7). The proposed method was applied to the determination of the four sulfa antibiotics in groundwater, soil and excreta with spiked recoveries of the four sulfa antibiotics in the range of 69 . 80%-117 . 60%.

FIRST REPORT ON Cryptococcus neoformans IN PIGEON EXCRETA FROM PUBLIC AND RESIDENTIAL LOCATIONS IN THE METROPOLITAN AREA OF CUIABÁ, STATE OF MATO GROSSO, BRAZIL / Primeiro registro de Cryptococcus neoformans em excretas de pombos provenientes de locais públicos e residenciais de área metropolitana de Cuiabá, Estado do Mato Grosso, Brasil

SUMMARY Cryptococcosis is a severe systemic mycosis caused by two species of Cryptococcus that affect humans and animals: C. neoformans and C. gattii. Cosmopolitan and emergent, the mycosis results from the interaction between a susceptible host and the environment. The occurrence of C. neoformans was evaluated in 122 samples of dried pigeon excreta collected in 49 locations in the City of Cuiabá, State of Mato Grosso, Brazil, including public squares (n = 5), churches (n = 4), educational institutions (n = 3), health units (n = 8), open areas covered with asbestos (n = 4), residences (n = 23), factory (n = 1) and a prison (n = 1). Samples collected from July to December of 2010 were seeded on Niger seed agar (NSA). Dark brown colonies were identified by urease test, carbon source assimilation tests and canavanine-glycine-bromothymol blue medium. Polymerase chain reaction primer pairs specific for C. neoformans were also used for identification. Cryptococcus neoformans associated to pigeon excreta was isolated from eight (6.6%) samples corresponding to six (12.2%) locations. Cryptococcus neoformans was isolated from urban areas, predominantly in residences, constituting a risk of acquiring the disease by immunocompromised and immunocompetent individuals. .

RESUMO A criptococose é micose sistêmica potencialmente grave causada por duas espécies do gênero Cryptococcus que acometem tanto homens como animais: Cryptococcus neoformans e C. gattii. São infecções cosmopolitas e emergentes, resultantes da interação do hospedeiro - humano e animal versus meio ambiente. A proposta deste trabalho foi avaliar a ocorrência de C. neoformans em 122 amostras de excretas secas de pombos coletadas em 49 locais na cidade de Cuiabá, Estado do Mato Grosso, Brasil, incluindo: praças públicas (n = 5), igrejas (n = 4), instituições de ensino (n = 3), unidades de saúde (n = 8), áreas abertas exibindo cobertura de amianto (n = 4), conjuntos residenciais domiciliares (n = 23), uma fábrica (n = 1) e um presídio (n = 1). Semeadura de suspensão de amostras em meio ágar niger (NSA), identificação fenotípica por provas bioquímicas e teste em meio de canavanina-glicina-azul de bromotimol, das colônias isoladas com pigmentação marrom escura. Foi também utilizada a técnica da reação em cadeia da polimerase com pares de iniciadores específicos para identificação de C. neoformans. As amostras foram coletadas de julho a dezembro de 2010. Cryptococcus neoformans foi isolado em oito (6,6%) de 122 amostras correspondendo a seis (12,2%) dos 49 sítios analisados. Cryptococcus neoformans associado a excretas de pombos ocorre em áreas de Cuiabá, predominando em residências nas amostras analisadas, constituindo fator de risco potencial para aquisição da doença tanto para indivíduos imunocomprometidos como imunocompetentes. .

Arsenic in Eggs and Excreta of Laying Hens in Bangladesh: A Preliminary Study

The aim of this study was to detect arsenic concentrations in feed, well-water for drinking, eggs, and excreta of laying hens in arsenic-prone areas of Bangladesh and to assess the effect of arsenic-containing feed and well-water on the accumulation of arsenic in eggs and excreta of the same subject. One egg from each laying hen (n=248) and its excreta, feed, and well-water for drinking were collected. Total arsenic concentrations were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometer, coupled with hydride generator. Effects of arsenic-containing feed and drinking-water on the accumulation of arsenic in eggs and excreta were analyzed by multivariate regression model, using Stata software. Mean arsenic concentrations in drinkingwater, feed (dry weight [DW]), egg (wet weight [WW]), and excreta (DW) of hens were 77.3, 176.6, 19.2, and 1,439.9 ppb respectively. Significant (p<0.01) positive correlations were found between the arsenic contents in eggs and drinking-water (r=0.602), drinking-water and excreta (r=0.716), feed and excreta (r=0.402) as well as between the arsenic content in eggs and the age of the layer (r=0.243). On an average, 55% and 82% of the total variation in arsenic contents of eggs and excreta respectively could be attributed to the variation in the geographic area, age, feed type, and arsenic contents of drinking-water and feed. For each week’s increase in age of hens, arsenic content in eggs increased by 0.94%. For every 1% elevation of arsenic in drinking-water, arsenic in eggs and excreta increased by 0.41% and 0.44% respectively whereas for a 1% rise of arsenic in feed, arsenic in eggs and excreta increased by 0.40% and 0.52% respectively. These results provide evidence that, although high arsenic level prevails in well-water for drinking in Bangladesh, the arsenic shows low biological transmission capability from body to eggs and, thus, the value was below the maximum tolerable limit for humans. However, arsenic in drinking-water and/or feed makes a significant contribution to the arsenic accumulations in eggs and excreta of laying hens.

Formiato de sódio em dietas para frangos de corte / Sodium formiate in diets for broilers

O estudo foi conduzido para testar a ação do formiato de sódio sobre o desempenho de frangos de corte. No primeiro experimento, foi avaliado o formiato de sódio em níveis crescentes na dieta e, no segundo, a substituição do cloreto de sódio pelo formiato de sódio, com adição de cloreto de amônia para ajuste do balanço eletrolítico. Aos 7, 14 e 21 dias de idade, foram avaliados o consumo de ração, ganho de peso e conversão alimentar e, aos 7 e aos 21 dias, medidos o consumo de água e a umidade das excretas das aves. Os dados obtidos foram submetidos à análise de variância e comparados pelo teste de Tukey. O desempenho de frangos de corte não é afetado quando o formiato de sódio é utilizado em substituição parcial ou total do cloreto de sódio na dieta. Porém, com a adição do formiato de sódio, deve-se observar o nível de sódio e cloro da dieta, de acordo com as exigências das aves.

This study was developed to evaluate the action of sodium formiate on broiler performance. In the first experiment it was tested the sodium formiate increasing levels in diet, and in the second experiment, it was valuated the replacement of sodium chloride by sodium formiate, with the addition of ammonium chloride for adjustment of electrolyte balance. At 7, 14 and 21 days, feed intake, weight gain and feed conversion were evaluated, and at 7 and 21 days, water intake and excreta moisture were evaluated. The data were submitted to analysis of variance and compared by Tukey test. The performance of broilers is not affected when sodium formate is used in partial or total replacement of sodium chloride in the diet. But with the addition of sodium formate, it should be noted the level of sodium and chlorine in the diet, according to birds' requirement.

Cryptococcus neoformans isolation from swallow (Hirundo rustica) excreta in Iran / Isolamento de Cryptococcus neoformans de excrementos de andorinhas (Hirundo rustica) do Irã

Cryptococcus neoformans is an encapsulated yeast that can cause cryptococcosis, a life-threatening infection that mainly occurs in immunocompromised patients. The major environmental sources of C. neoformans have been shown to be soil contaminated with avian droppings. In the present study, we evaluated the isolation of C. neoformans from swallow (Hirundo rustica) excreta in two northern cities of Iran. Ninety-seven swallow droppings were evaluated and 498 yeast-like colonies were isolated and identified as Rhodotorula spp. (62.8 percent), Candida spp. (28.5 percent)and C. neoformans (8.7 percent). Cryptococcus neoformans was isolated from 5/97 (5.2 percent) of collected samples. Min-Max colony forming units (CFU) per one gram for the positive samples were 3-10 C. neoformans colonies. The total mean CFU per one gram for the positive samples was 4.8. The results of this study demonstrate that excreta of swallow may harbor different species of potentially pathogenic yeasts, mainly C. neoformans, and may be capable of disseminating these fungi in the environment.

Cryptococcus neoformans é levedura encapsulada que pode causar criptococose, infecção potencialmente mortal que ocorre principalmente em pacientes imunocomprometidos. As principais fontes ambientais de C. neoformans são o solo contaminado com fezes de aves. No presente estudo, avaliamos o isolamento de C. neoformans de excreta de andorinhas (Hirundo rustica) em duas cidades do norte do Irã. Noventa e sete amostras de fezes de andorinhas foram avaliadas e 498 colonias semelhantes à levedura foram isoladas e identificadas como Rhodotorula spp. (62,8 por cento), Candida spp. (28,5 por cento), C. neoformans (8,7 por cento). Cryptococcus neoformans foi isolado a partir de 5/97 (5,2 por cento) das amostras coletadas. Unidades Min-Max formadoras de colonias (CFU) por 1 grama das amostras positivas foram 3-10 coloniasde C. neoformans. A média total de CFU por 1 grama das amostras positivas foi de 4,8. Os resultados deste estudo demonstram que excrementos de andorinhas podem abrigar diferentes espécies de leveduras potencialmente patógenas, principalmente C. neoformans, e podem ser capazes de disseminar estes fungos no meio ambiente.

Presencia de Cryptococcus neoformans en excretas de palomas urbanas en San Miguel de Tucumán - Argentina / Presence of Cryptococcus neoformans in urban pigeons excreta from San Miguel de Tucumán – Argentina

Con la finalidad de detectar la presencia del complejo Cryptococcus neoformans en excretas de palomas (Columba livia) que habitan los espacios públicos del perímetro urbano de San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina, se recogieron 100 muestras de 5 localizaciones diferentes. Como medio de aislamiento se empleó Agar-Semillas de Níger y las levaduras fueron identificadas mediante la presencia de cápsula, prueba de la ureasa, producción de fenol-oxidasa, asimilación de carbohidratos y crecimiento a 37°C. La especie fue determinada usando el medio Canavanina-Glicina-Azulde bromotimol. C. neoformans var. neoformans fue aislado en todas las 55 muestras de las áreas estudiadas, reflejando una amplia distribución en la zona céntrica de la ciudad preferentemente en excretas secas acumuladas. La sensibilidad in vitro frente a Fluconazol, Itraconazol, Anfotericina B y Voriconazol fue determinada por el método de difusión en placa usando tabletas Neo-Sensitabs. Todos los aislamientos fueron sensibles a los antifúngicos testeados.

With the purpose of detecting the presence of Cryptococcus neoformans complex in excreta of pigeons inhabitating public spaces belonging to the urban perimeter of San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina, one hundred samples were collected from five different locations. Niger seed agar plates were used as means of isolation and yeasts were identified through the presence of capsule, urease test, fenoloxidase production, carbohydrate assimilation and growth at 37ºC. Species was determined with the CGB method. C. neoformans var. neoformans was isolated in all 55 samples of the studied areas showing a wide distribution downtown, mainly in dried excreta settlings. In vitro sensibility in front of Fluconazol, Itraconazol, Anfotericina B and Voriconazol was fixed by means of the diffusion method by using Neo-Sensitabs tablet. All isolations proved to be sensible to the tested antifungal.

Correlación entre agua y saneamiento e indicadores de salus y desarrollo 2008: Costa Rica en el mundo / Correlation between potable water, sanitation and development health indicators 2008: Costa Rica in the world

Describir las coberturas con las diferentes modalidades de acceso a agua para consumo humano y disposición adecuada de excretas, definidas en los conceptos de fuentes de agua potable mejoradas e instalaciones de saneamiento mejoradas, en 147 países del mundo, y su relación con los indicadores básicos de salud y desarrollo. Por otro lado, se busca ubicar a Costa Rica en el contexto mundial durante el año 2008 en estos aspectos. Método: los datos se obtuvieron de documentos publicados por la Organización Mundial de la Salud y el Programa de las Naciones Unidas para la Infancia. Se realizaron análisis de correlación lineal, al 95 por ciento de confianza, entre los datos, para determinar la asociación entre los respectivos pares de variables; además, se establecieron escalafones o ranking de acceso a los diferentes tipos de coberturas, para identificar la ubicación de nuestro país en cada una de ellas. Conclusiones: los resultados demuestran que las variables de acceso a fuentes de agua potable mejoradas total e instalaciones de saneamiento mejoradas, explican mejor los avances de las naciones en los indicadores básicos de salud y desarrollo

Determination of metabolizable energy value of corn with different average geometric diameters for european quails (Coturnix coturnix coturnix)

Metabolizable energy (ME) of corn with different geometric diameters was determined in European quail with 26 days of age with 124 g of mean live weight, using the Total Collection of Excreta Method. One hundred and twenty five quails were divided in five treatments, five replications with five quails each, with one treatment used to determine endogenous losses. Values of Average Geometric Diameter (AGD) of the corn were 600, 800, 1000 and 1200 µm. ME of corn was not affected by AGD. Average values were 3079, 3274, 3300, 3137 Kcal/kg respectively for apparent metabolizable energy, corrected apparent metabolizable energy, true metabolizable energy, corrected true metabolizable energy.

Determinou-se o valor de energia metabolizável (EM) do milho com diferentes diâmetros geométrico médio em codornas com 26 dias de idade e 124 g de peso médio, utilizando-se a metodologia da coleta total de excretas. Foram utilizadas 125 codornas distribuídas em cinco tratamentos com cinco repetições de cinco aves, sendo um tratamento para determinar as perdas endógenas. Os valores de diâmetro geométrico médio (DGM) do milho estudado foram 600, 800, 1000 e 1200 µm. O DGM não apresentou influência significativa sobre a EM do milho que apresentou valores médios de 3079, 3274, 3300, verdadeira, energia metabolizável verdadeira corrigida.

Pesquisa de Cryptococcus neoformans e Candida spp. em excretas de psitacídeos e passeriformes cativos / Research on Cryptococcus neoformans and Candida spp. in the excretas of captive psittacisittacines and passeriformes / Investigación de Cryptococcus neoformans y Candida spp. en excretas de psittacidae y psittaciformes cautivos

As leveduras podem causar diversas doenças no homem e animais. Nas aves, as leveduras estão envolvidas principalmente em lesões no trato respiratório e digestório. Entre as leveduras patogênicas, Cryptococcus neoformans vem se destacando pela alta prevalência de criptococose humana em pacientes imunodeprimidos. Assim, os objetivos deste estudo foram identificar C. neoformans e outras leveduras patogênicas na cloaca e coana de passeriformes e psitaciformes e em excretas coletadas do fundo de gaiolas de aviários. Foram obtidas 29 amostras de 15 aves manifestando algum sinal respiratório, provenientes do Ambulatório de Animais Selvagens da UFPR (n=6) e da Clínica Veterinária Vida Livre (n= 23). As amostras foram semeadas em Ágar Sabouraud e Ágar Níger e mantidas a 300ºC por até 30 dias. Todas as colônias foram analisadas quanto à macro e micromorfologia. Para aquelas identificadas como leveduras, foram realizadas as provas bioquímicas: assimilação de carbono e nitrogênio e formação de tubo germinativo para identificação de Candida albicans. As amostras de excreta dos aviários (n=8) foram misturadas com solução fisiológica contendo antibiótico e o sobrenadante foi semeado em Ágar Níger. Nenhuma amostra das aves apresentou resultado positivo para C. neoformans, porém identificaram-se amostras positivas para C. albicans (duas amostras de coana), C. famata (uma amostra de coana) e C. tropicalis (uma amostra de coana). As excretas foram negativas para C. neoformans. Portanto, apesar de não ter sido isolado C. neoformans, outras leveduras patogênicas foram isoladas, demonstrando a importância dessas aves como possíveis veiculadoras de doenças para humanos.

The yeasts can cause many diseases in man and animals. On birds, the yeasts are involved mainly in respiratory and digestive tract lesions. Among pathogenic yeast, Cryptococcus neoformans is an important cause of human cryptococcisis associated with immunocompromised states. The purpose of this study is to identify the occurrence of C. neoformans and other pathogenic yeasts in cloacae and choana from passeriformes and psittacines as well as in excretas from poultry cages. Twenty nine samples from fifteen birds showing some respiratory symptom, from Veterinary Hospital of UFPR (n = 6) and Vida Livre Veterinary Clinic (n = 23), were collected. The samples were spread in Sabouraud dextrose Agar and Staib medium and kept at 30°C and observed for 30 days. All colonies were analyzed with respect to its micro and macromorphology. Biochemical assays were conducted for samples presenting yeasts: carbon and nitrogen assimilation profile and germ tube for Candida albicans identification. Samples from birds’ extracts (n = 8) were diluted in sterile saline solution with antibiotic and the supernatant was inoculated in spread on Niger seed agar. All samples were negative for Cryptococcus neoformans, however, C. albicans (two samples from choana), C. famata (one sample from choana) and C. tropicalis (choana) were found. Excretas from bird cages were negative to C. neoformans. Results suggested that birds harbor various pathogenic species of yeast, but not C. neoformans, and the result showed potential danger to carry diseases to humans.

Las levaduras pueden causar diversas enfermedades en el hombre y animales. En las aves, las levaduras están involucradas principalmente en lesiones en el tracto respiratorio y digestivo. Entre las levaduras patogénicas, Cryptococcus neoformans viene destacándose por la alta incidencia de cryptococcus humana en pacientes inmune deprimidos. Así, el objetivo de este estudio fueron identificar C. neoformans y otras levaduras patogénicas en la cloaca y coana de psittacidae y psittaciformes y en excretas colectadas de las jaulas de pajareras. Fueron obtenidas 29 muestras de quince (15) aves manifestando algún señal respiratorio, provenientes del Ambulatorio de Animales Salvajes de la UFPR (n=6) y de la Clínica Veterinaria Vida Livre (n= 23). Las muestras fueron sembradas en Ágar Sabouraud y Ágar Níger y mantenidas a 30ºC hasta 30 días. Todas las colonias fueron analizadas cuanto a la macro y micromorfología. Para aquellas identificadas como levaduras, fueron realizadas las pruebas bioquímicas: asimilación de carbono y nitrógeno, y formación de tubo germinativo para identificación de Candida albicans. Las muestras de excreta de los pajareros (n=8) fueron mezcladas con solución fisiológica conteniendo antibiótico y el sobrenadante fue sembrado en Ágar Níger. Ninguna muestra de las aves presentó resultado positivo para C. neoformans, pero se identificaron muestras positivas para C. albicans (dos muestras de coana), C. famata (una muestra de coana) y C. tropicalis (una nuestra de coana). Las excretas fueron negativas para C. neoformans. Por lo tanto, a pesar de no haber sido aislado C. neoformans, otras levaduras patogénicas fueron aisladas, demostrando que esas aves son posibles transmisoras de enfermedades para los seres humanos.

Saneamiento y relación con la salud de la niñez en el contexto mundial 2004 / Sanitation as related to children`s health in the world context 2004

Se determina el efecto mundial de los diferentes tipos de cobertura de disposición de excretas, DE, definidas en el marco del concepto "Instalaciones de Saneamiento Mejoradas", ISM, de OMS y UNICEF, sobre las tasas de mortalidad en niños menores de 5 años, TM menor 5 años. Para lograrlo se recolectaron datos de cobertura de DE en 161 países del "Programa Conjunto de Monitoreo" del 2004. Las TM menor 5 años se obtuvieron del informe "Progreso para la Infancia: un balance sobre agua y saneamiento". Los datos de ISM se clasificaron en totales, ISM-total, alcantarillado, DEA, tanques sépticos y letrinas, DET y L, y sin servicio, DESS. Se aplicaron 3 métodos estadísticos: distribución de frecuencias entre los intervalos de ambas variables, la correlación simple de Pearson entre los tipos de evacuación de excretas y las TM menor 5 años y la correlación Parcial al 95 por ciento de confianza pero controlando variables. Los resultados indican que a mayor cobertura mediante ISM-total menor es la TM menor 5 años, con una correlación de menos 0.782, mientras que las coberturas con DEA tienen mayor impacto sobre la disminución de la mortalidad que cuando se realiza por DET y L. Estos resultados se ratifican con las otras pruebas estadísticas y comprueban la hipótesis.

The worldwide effect on mortality in children under five years of age (MR < 5 years ) is determined for the different types of excreta disposal (ED) coverage, as defined in the framework of "Improved Sanitation Facilities (ISF)", established by the WHO and UNICEF. To accomplish this, ED coverage data was collected from 161 countries participating in the "Joint Monitoring Programme" in 2004. The mortality rates were obtained from "Progress for Children: A Balance on Water and Sanitation". ISF data were classified as: total (total-ISF), sewage (DEA), septic tanks and latrines (DET and L), and without services (DESS). Three statistical methods were applied: frequency distribution between the intervals of both variables, Pearson´s simple correlation between the types of excreta evacuation and the MR<5 years, and partial correlation at 95% confidence but controlling the variables. Results indicate that as total coverage (total-ISF) increases, there is a lower incidence of mortality (MR < 5 years), with a correlation of –0,782; while DEA coverage has a greater impact over mortality decrease as compared to DET and L. The results are ratified with the other statistical tests and prove the hypothesis.

Estado del agua para consumo humano y saneamiento en Costa Rica al año 2007 / Water for human consumption and sanitation in Costa rica, 2007

El objetivo es describir la situación de cobertura y calidad del agua para consumo humano, ACH y disposición de excretas, o aguas residuales ordinarias, en Costa Rica al año 2007. Para cumplir con el objetivo de este estudio descriptivo-retrospectivo, se aplicaron los siguientes pasos: A. Se aprovecharon los datos históricos de los Programas de Vigilancia y Control de la Calidad del Agua, desarrollados por el Laboratorio Nacional de Aguas, LNA. B. La información existente sobre la cobertura de los diferentes mecanismos de disposición de excretas en el AyA, OPS e INEC. C. La evolución de las coberturas de agua de calidad suministrada por los diferentes administradores de los servicios de agua potable, se elaboró mediante los informes anuales de calidad del ACH entre 1989 y el año 2007, elaborados en el Laboratorio Nacional de Agua, LNA. Los resultados indican que Costa Rica tiene una cobertura de ACH del 98.3 por ciento en el 2007, de la cual el 94.3 por ciento es suministrada por conexión intradomiciliar. El 83.5 por ciento del ACH suplida por acueductos fue de calidad potable, mientras que el 82 por ciento de la población total del país recibió agua de calidad potable. En el caso de la disposición de excretas, el 67.3 por ciento de la población lo hacen por medio de tanques sépticos, el 20.1 por ciento por alcantarillado sanitario sin tratamiento, el 4.9 por ciento por alcantarillado sanitario y tratamiento con operación deficiente; además, solamente el 3.5 por ciento de las excretas son evacuadas por alcantarillado con tratamiento eficiente. El 3.4 por ciento lo hacen mediante letrinas. Se recomienda ejecutar el Programa Nacional de Mejoramiento y Sostenibilidad de la Calidad de los Servicios de Agua Potable 2007-2015. Con respecto a la evacuación de excretas, es necesario crear un Programa Nacional de la Disposición de Excretas 2008-2020.

The objetive of this study is to describe the quality of water for human consumption (ACH ), excrement disposal, and sewerage water in Costa Rica, as well as their coverage to the year 2007. In order attain the objective for this descriptive and retrospective study, the following steps were applied: A) Analysis of the historical database from surveillance and water quality control developed by the National Water Laboratory (LNA). B) Analysis of existing information regarding coverage of different mechanisms for excrement disposal in AyA; Pan American Health Organization, and the National Institute for Statistics and Census (INEC). C) Coverage evolution of water quality supplied by drinking water services administrators, which was done by means of annual reports of quality of ACH between 1989 and 2007 as reported by the National Water Laboratory (LNA). The results indicate that Costa Rica has a coverage of ACH of 98,3% in 2007, of which which 94.3% is supplied by household connections. 83.5% of ACH supplied by AyA was drinking water quality, while 82% of total population of the country was supplied with drinking water quality. In the case of excrement disposal, 67.3% of population used septic tanks, 20.1% by sewerage system without any treatment, 4.9% by sewerage system with a poor treatment of sewage water; furthermore, only 3,5% of excrements disposal by sewerage systems are treated with efficient treatment, and 3.4% use letrines. We recommend carrying out the National Programme for Improvement and Quality Sustainability of Drinking Water Services 2007-2015. With respect to excrements disposal, it is necessary to create a Program of National Excrement Disposal 2008-2020.

Environmental Pollution by Quinolines Antibiotics from Human and Animal Excreta / 环境与健康杂志

Quinolines antibiotics present stable chemical properties ,higher excretion of prototype drug. Most of quinolines antibiotics used by human and animals show original and various biological activity forms in the excrement,which is important to ecological environment and human health. The data indicate that the present clinical treatment is facing frequent occurrence and higher rates of quinolines antibiotics-resistance, which is related to environmental pollution by quinolines antibiotics. So far as little research is focused on the management of the excrement from human and animals using quinolines antibiotics, and the control, management of the residues of excrement are very important for reducing the risk of antibiotic-resistance in human.

Investigation on Quality of Construction and Sanitation of Double-urn-and-single-funel Latrines in Countryside of Zhengzhou / 环境与健康杂志

Objective To understand the quality of construction and sanitation of double_urn_and_single_funel(DUSF)latrines widely popularized in He'nan province and its current problems.Methods The qualities of contruction and sanitary management of 1269 DUSF latrines were investigated in countryside of Zhengzhou.Results The total qualified rate of the construction quality was 86.9% for 1269 observed DUSF latrines.The constituent ratios of latrines with good,moderate and bad sanitary management were 43.4%,33.4% and 23.2% respectively.The percentages of the latrines with auxiliary facilities such as flax brushes,tolet paper collectors and water storage tanks were 66.5%,67.3%and 39.4% respectively.Conclusion The quality of construction of DUSF latrines in countryside of Zhengzhou was qualified on the whole.But the sanitary management and maintenance of DUSF latrines should be improved further.