An Exploration into Life, Body, Materials, Culture of Mediaeval East Asia: Focusing on Emergency Medicine Recipes in Local Medicinals of Koryŏ Dynasty / 의사학

The Emergency Medicine Recipes in Local Medicinals (鄕藥救急方, Hyang'yak Kugŭpbang) (c. 14th century) is known to be one of the oldest Korean medical textbooks that exists in its entirety. This study challenges conventional perceptions that have interpreted this text by using modern concepts, and it seeks to position the medical activities of the late Koryŏ Dynasty 高麗 (918–1392) to the early Chosŏn Dynasty 朝鮮 (1392–1910) in medical history with a focus on this text. According to existing studies, Emergency Medicine Recipes in Local Medicinals is a strategic compromise of the Korean elite in response to the influx of Chinese medical texts and thus a medical text from a “periphery” of the Sinitic world. Other studies have evaluated this text as a medieval publication demonstrating stages of transition to systematic and rational medicine and, as such, a formulary book 方書 that includes primitive elements. By examining past medicine practices through “modern” concepts based on a dichotomous framework of analysis — i.e., modernity vs. tradition, center vs. periphery, science vs. culture — such conventional perceptions have relegated Emergency Medicine Recipes in Local Medicinals to the position of a transitional medieval publication meaningful only for research on hyangchal 鄕札 (Chinese character-based writing system used to record Korean during the Silla Dynasty 新羅 [57 BC–935 AD] to the Koryŏ Dynasty). It is necessary to overcome this dichotomous framework in order to understand the characteristics of East Asian medicine. As such, this study first defines “medicine 醫”, an object of research on medical history, as a “special form of problem-solving activities” and seeks to highlight the problematics and independent medical activities of the relevant actors. Through this strategy (i.e., texts as solutions to problems), this study analyzes Emergency Medicine Recipes in Local Medicinals to determine its characteristics and significance. Ultimately, this study argues that Emergency Medicine Recipes in Local Medicinals was a problem-solving method for the scholar-gentry 士人層 from the late Koryŏ Dynasty to the early Chosŏn Dynasty, who had adopted a new cultural identity, to perform certain roles on the level of medical governance and constitute medical praxis that reflected views of both the body and materials and an orientation distinguished from those of the so-called medicine of Confucian physicians 儒醫, which was the mainstream medicine of the center. Intertwined at the cultural basis of the treatments and medical recipes included in Emergency Medicine Recipes in Local Medicinals were aspects such as correlative thinking, ecological circulation of life force, transformation of materiality through contact, appropriation of analogies, and reasoning of sympathy. Because “local medicinals 鄕藥” is understood in Emergency Medicine Recipes in Local Medicinals as referring to objects easily available from one's surroundings, it signifies locality referring to the ease of acquisition in local areas rather than to the identity of the state of Koryŏ or Chosŏn. As for characteristics revealed by this text's methods of implementing medicine, Korean medicine in terms of this text consisted largely of single-ingredient formulas using diverse medicinal ingredients easily obtainable from one's surroundings rather than making use of general drugs as represented by materia medica 本草 or of multiple-ingredient formulas. In addition, accessible tools, full awareness of the procedures and processes of the guidelines, procedural rituals, and acts of emergency treatment (first aid) were more important than the study of the medical classics, moral cultivation, and coherent explanations emphasized in categorical medical texts. Though Emergency Medicine Recipes in Local Medicinals can be seen as an origin of the tradition of emergency medicine in Korea, it differs from medical texts that followed which specializing in emergency medicine to the extent that it places toxicosis 中毒 before the six climatic factors 六氣 in its classification of diseases.

A Single Medicine for a Disease: Simple Formula of Treasured Mirror of Eastern Medicine, It's Compilation and Succession / 의사학

In this study, I am planning to analyze the contents of Simple formula in Treasured Mirror of Eastern Medicine (TM), and then find out the historical implication of medical science. Simple formula is a prescription that is consisted of a single or three to four kinds of medicines, and this does not follow typical control principles such as 'sovereign, minister, assistant and courier'. While simple formulas are often built after major formulas, TM placed simple formulas to an end of each classified item. It is difficult to find a similar compilation style as that of Simple formula among similar volumes of medical books during the same period of TM. Thus, it can be assumed that TM included simple formulas for special purposes or reasons which are deemed as an important factor in stipulating the features of TM. The tradition of Simple formula, using medicinal herbs which can be easily acquired and trying to make an effect with a small number of herbs, had existed before Goryeo Dynasty. Introduced by Emergency Prescriptions from the Countryside and Samhwaja's Formulary from the Countryside, the tradition of Simple formula is succeeded by Compendium of Prescriptions from the Countryside, and after a while, it is synthetically arranged and recognized through Simple formula of TM. By analyzing simple formulas of TM, I could find out the followings. First, in simple formulas of TM, in which the components are the number of medicinal herbs, the name of prescription, and their application, should be understood as a simply consisted prescription rather than single medicine formulas. Second, simple formulas of TM are 2,001 in total, and are organized in most items. Third, although simple formulas cite a number of formulary, it shows a high degree of dependence to Classified Emergency Materia Medica. This shows that simple formulas that are structured to use medicine according to symptoms based on the effect of each medicinal herb, without understanding or dialectic process of syndrome differentiation. Fourth, while the part of medicinal herbs, Decoction section, focuses on listing the information of each medicinal herb, simple formulas introduce effect, dose, volume and even a mix with other medicinal herbs and an application of them. Therefore, a simple formula evaluates single medicinal herb as a sort of prescription. Fifth, more than half of 33 kinds of medicinal herbs, which are used more than 11 times in simple formulas of TM, are easy to get around the village, and their Korean names of Materia Medica from the Countryside are possible to be seen in Decoction section. However, the fact that Materia Medica from China such as Coptics chinensis and Realgar is included in simple formulas means that they are not limited to Materia Medica from the Countryside, and some of Materia Medica from China were not difficult to be procured in the time of publication of TM. Specific purpose of publishing simple formulas is not written separately. However, through the king's command of King Seonjo (1552-1608) in introduction, the active containing of folk prescriptions, and the emphasis of medicinal herb's volume using simple formulas, it is assumed that the Chosun government at that time tried to provide friendly and practical medical information with simple formulas, to collect and formulate private medical experiences in order to expand their extension of medical information, and to maximize the effect of treatment. The compilation system like TM was highly regarded but was also the target of criticism. In particular, King Jeongjo (1752-1800) criticized the complicatedness of TM and deleted information related to simple formulas through government compilation medical texts such as Explanation of Subtleties for the People's Longevity, New Edition on Universal Relife. However, simple formulas which were not composed of many medicinal herbs could be useful way for treating people who did not have professional medical knowledge and did not have a large range of herbs. In actuality, Secret Works of Universal Benefit, the representative compilation of civil medicinal text which was published after TM included information related to simple formulas, and in Records for rural life of Chosun gentlemen, the framework of simple formulas of TM was maintained and is filled with a vast amount of information. Furthermore, cases of utilizing simple formulas are included in the U-Jam's miscellaneous writings which is a clinical record. In Simple formulas of TM, private medical experiences at the time of Chosun are written first, then recognized by the experts, and finally returned to the public. Although the purpose and the target of these simple formulas publication are not clearly known, it is easy found, does not require any advanced medical knowledge, and above all, the people must have welcomed to the supply of economic simple formulas. Therefore, simple formulas show an aspect of TM, as a medical book for public.

Influence of Compendium of Materia Medica on the Materia Medica in the late period of the Chosun Dynasty / 의사학

In this paper, I investigated the influence of Compendium of Materia Medica (CM) on Records for Rural Life of Chosun Gentlemen (RRC), and refuted Miki Sakae's opinion, CM did not have much impact on the Materia Medica in the late period of the Chosun Dynasty. When Li Shizhen published CM, it resulted in a shift of mainstream of Materia Medica in Eastern Asia from Classified Emergency Materia Medica to CM and a new categorizing system of Materia Medica by CM led to the division of Materia Medica into medicine and natural history. It is obvious that doctors of the Chosun Dynasty also adopted the latest achievements of Materia Medica by CM, but so far there have been few studies to clarify this. Seo yugu was a scholar of the Realist School of Confucianism during the late period of the Chosun Dynasty, and RRC is his representative work. RRC is a massive encyclopedia of natural history that covers vast areas of science from agriculture, floriculture, writing and drawing, architecture, diet, and medicine, among others which absorbed the achievements of CM, the best Materia Medica book at that time. Miki Sakae also highly regarded the encyclopedic knowledge of RRC, but devalued the results of Materia Medica. He only described a part of RRC's Materia Medica, nurturing volume, on the view of life nurturing and mentioned that it had been strongly influenced by China. According to this study, a large portion of RRC, especially regarding Materia Medica, depends on CM. Seo yugu had accepted the categorizing system and new medicinal information of CM, at the same time he modified the categorizing system of CM practically by the subject of each volume of RRC. We can find many quotations of CM except the nurturing volume, but other books, Treasured Mirror of Eastern Medicine, Materia Medica for Relief of Famines are also quoted. Furthermore, Seo yugu emphasized the differences of natural environments between Chosun and China, and specified the editing criteria, "to be useful in Chosun." This is the most obvious evidence that Materia Medica of Chosun had not remained in the framework of Treasured Mirror of Eastern Medicine which succeeded Classified Emergency Materia Medica, but had been developed into medicine and natural history based on CM.

The Life of Medical Historian Miki Sakae, and the (History of Korean Medicine and of Diseases in Korea) / 의사학

Miki Sakae was a Medical historian, who is well known for his studies of Korean medicine. He authored the renowned trilogy which dealt with subjects of Korean medicine and diseases, namely the (History of Korean Medicine and of Diseases in Korea), (Bibliography of Korean Medical Books), and (The Chronological Table of Medical Events in Korea), during the Japanese Occupation period. He was born in 1903 in Osaka, Japan, and graduated from the Kyushu College of Medicine. In 1928 he was assigned to the Gyeongseong Imperial University's College of Medicine as a professor, and also served as Chief of the Suweon Provincial Hospital while he was staying in Korea. During the 18-year period of his stay, he widely collected medical books of Korea and also thoroughly studied them. He returned to Japan in 1944 due to the illness of his father, but continued his studies of Korean medicine, and in 1955 published the (History of Korean Medicine and of Diseases in Korea) for the first time. Following such accomplishment, (Bibliography of Korean Medical Books) was published in 1956, the next year, and finally (The Chronological Table of Medical Events in Korea) was published a few decades later, in 1985. Since the 1950s, aside of continuing to study and author the history of Korean medicine, he had also engaged himself in a joint effort associated with the members of the Medical History Association of Japan (which also included the alumni of the Kyushu College of Medicine) in a group study of Huseya Soteki the first Japanese Experimental Physiologist. He also attempted at establishing an academic branch which could be referred to as Experimental Historical Studies of Medicine, by recreating the experiments of Huseya Sotek with his own son.Later he also expanded his interest and studies to the medical history of the world and also the area of Medical Ethics. But his ultimate interest and passion were always targeted at the Medicine of Korea, and the one consistent position he maintained during his entire life regarding the Korean medicine, was that 'One can only talk about the medicine of China and Japan when he or she is well versed in the medicine of Korea'. And his lifetime achievement, (History of Korean Medicine and of Diseases in Korea) was authored upon the basis established by such conviction and philosophy. First, in this book the perspective of Cultural Transmission, which considers the flow of cultural qualities and assets to be ordinarily flowing from highly developed regions to less developed ones, was firmly maintained.

Kim Doo-jong: a life for the history of Korean medicine / 의사학

Kim Doo-jong, the founder of the history of medicine in Korea, was born on 2nd March, 1896. After finishing his primary education in his home town, he went to Seoul to receive a higher education. He entered Keijo Medical College in 1918. However, at the end of his first year, he participated in the 3 . 1 movement which protested against Japanese harsh rule over Korea. On account of his participation in the movement, he was forced to leave the college which was run by the Japanese colonial government. Then he went to Japan to enter Kyoto Municipal Medical College, from which college he graduated in 1924. After the graduation, he went to Beijing to work in a hospital run by Japanese. Having felt uncomfortable about the situation in Beijing, he moved to Manchuria, where he opened his private clinic and saw patients for 7 years. As the life as a clinician did not satisfy him, he gave up his practice, and determined to devote himself to the study of history of medicine. He was 43 years old when he started studying history of medicine at the Dong Ah Institute, an affiliated research institute of Manchuria Medical College founded by Japanese. The institute had a large and magnificent collection of ancient texts of oriental medicine. He set on historical studies on the oriental medicine from the perspective of the Western medicine. His doctorial dissertation was about anatomy in oriental medicine. He intended to continue his study on organology, myology, etc., but the sudden end of the World War II made him return to Korea. This meant that he could not make access to the large collection of the institute, and his themes of the research had to be changed. On returning to Korea, he established the Department of the History of Medicine in Seoul National University, which was the only and the first one of its kind. He wrote History of Korean Medicine, which still remains one of the most important works on the history of Korean medicine. He was very energetic and active in his academic activities even during his late years. He passed away on 18th May 1988 at the age of 92.