El estudio de los efectos de la modalidad lingüística en el léxico mental / The study of the effects of linguistic modality on the mental lexicon

Resumen El estudio se cuestiona sobre un abordaje fructífero en el estudio de los efectos de la modalidad lingüística (de señas versus oral) en la organización de la memoria semántica. Para responder la pregunta de investigación, un aspecto central es definir criterios y procedimientos capaces de distinguir entre los factores transportados por la modalidad lingüística de los que le son propios. Entre los primeros, se encuentran la edad de exposición a la lengua natural y su distribución funcional, etaria o geográfica. Entre los aspectos propios de la modalidad se incluyen la iconicidad y el grado de concreción/abstracción de las piezas léxicas. Se sugiere centrarse en el uso de dicho gradiente para evocar dominios conceptuales. Si lo concreto/abstracto es un continuo, entonces hay que preguntarse qué forma de organización es predominante en el léxico mental de las poblaciones señantes u oyentes y qué factores modulan el perfil de esa organización.

Abstract The efforts to understand the relationship of the meaning of a lexical piece to the object to which it refers, the relationship between the lexical pieces and the concepts, and the understanding of the meanings shared between two speakers who use the same lexical pieces have all constituted major problems for the semantic memory models. According to contemporary literature, perceptual-motor, linguistic, and social information have different weights in the formation of concepts, whether concrete or abstract, stored in the aforementioned memory. Regardless of the models developed so far, it is interesting to note that semantic knowledge is represented by various ways of relating the concepts and the types of relationships between them. In this context, studies in sign languages and comparative studies between spoken and sign languages are scarce. Thus, little is known about the effect of linguistic modality on the semantic networks. After all, the theory on semantic networks and norms for the production of features has been grounded on theories of language and its processing adjusted to spoken languages. As the incorporation of the sign language and the Deaf population has shown in other psycholinguistic and linguistic topics, the importance of including these languages and populations, and comparatives with spoken languages, might increase the explanatory power of the theory to account for the universal and contextual aspects of language and its processing. In this effort, there is a latent risk: the linguistic modality can be only a vehicle for more well-known or studied cross-modal variables (e. g., age of acquisition, functional distribution of language, size of the available lexicon, etc.). If it is considered that languages are not stored together, but similar processes can occur in them, it is essential to find out what may be a singular feature of each modality (spoken versus sign) that might ground differentiated processes. Considering the high iconicity of the sign languages and the possibility of a high concreteness of the lexical pieces in the sign language as distinctive features -not collapsible into well-known variables such as the aforementioned-, this article suggests a careful approach to avoid the aforementioned risk in the study of the effects of the linguistic modality (sign versus oral) in the organization of semantic memory. Since perceptual-motor and social information are the main sources of iconicity, a balanced instrument is necessary in the evocation of perceptual-motor, social, and linguistic information. Repeated free word association tasks seem like an appropriate paradigm for a suggested approach. The reasons for this are that, by not censoring the types of response, then free association tasks allow capturing all kinds of concepts (concrete or abstract), all kinds of semantic relationships/organization (paradigmatic versus thematic) and all kinds of processes (comparison versus interaction). This type of task therefore makes it possible to collect meanings related to linguistic information and non-linguistic experience because affective and experiential information is accessible by doing the task in different repetitions. The approach and the tool are exemplified by an ongoing comparative study between Deaf signing and hearing populations. The partial findings of this study also serve to focus on the expected effects of the difference in iconicity and the level of concreteness/abstractness of the lexical pieces of each linguistic modality; namely, the differences between an abstract and a concrete conceptualization of the conceptual domains. Taxonomic and introspective labels might appear as indicative of paradigmatic relationships, of a taxonomic organization, and of underlying comparison processes. On the other hand, the situational and entity labels, indicative of syntagmatic relationships, of a thematic organization and of underlying interaction processes, might suggest a predominantly concrete organization.

Tamaño del léxico en niños(as) muy prematuros y prematuros extremos de 24 meses: un estudio transversal / Vocabulary size in very preterm and extremely preterm infants: a cross-sectional study

Las investigaciones muestran que un número importante de niños nacidos prematuros (antes de las 37 semanas de gestación) presentan dificultades en su desarrollo, entre ellas el desarrollo lingüístico. Las investigaciones previas indican que algunas complicaciones biomédicas, como la hemorragia intraventricular (los grados III y IV), la leucomalacia periventricular y la displasia broncopulmonar, incrementan la probabilidad de presentar alteraciones en el desarrollo de la cognición y/o del lenguaje, por lo que se hace necesario realizar investigaciones que proporcionen más información y con ello poder anticiparse a posibles consecuencias en los aprendizajes futuros de estos niños nacidos bajo la condición de prematuridad. Es así, que los objetivos de este estudio fueron medir el tamaño del léxico temprano en niños muy prematuros y prematuros extremos (con y sin complicaciones biomédicas) a los 24 meses de edad corregida, así como también determinar la asociación entre número de complicaciones biomédicas presentes y el tamaño del léxico. Para ello, se trabajó con 108 niños divididos en tres grupos: 39 niños prematuros de alto riesgo (con complicaciones biomédicas), 36 niños prematuros de bajo riesgo (sin complicaciones biomédicas asociadas a alteraciones del lenguaje y /o cognición) y 33 niños nacidos de término. Todos fueron evaluados con el Inventario II de Desarrollo de Habilidades Comunicativas MacArthur-Bates. Los resultados muestran que los niños nacidos de término tienen significativamente mayor tamaño del léxico que los prematuros, no existiendo diferencias en los resultados entre prematuros de bajo riesgo y los prematuros de alto riesgo. Por otra parte, el tamaño del léxico no presenta correlación con las complicaciones biomédicas.

Research shows that a significant number of children born preterm (before 37 weeks of gestation) have developmental difficulties, among them disturbances in language development. Studies indicate that some biomedical complications such as intraventricular hemorrhage (grades III and IV), periventricular leukomalacia, and bronchopulmonary dysplasia increase the probability of cognitive and/or language development disorders. Therefore, there is a need to conduct more studies that provide information that allows anticipating possible consequences in the learning process of children born prematurely. The aims of this study were to measure the early vocabulary size in very preterm and extremely preterm children (with and without biomedical complications) at 24 months of corrected age and to determine the association between the number of biomedical complications and vocabulary size. To that effect, we worked with 108 children divided into three groups: 39 high-risk preterm children (with biomedical complications), 36 low-risk preterm children (without biomedical complications associated with language and/or cognitive disturbances), and 33 full-term children. All children were evaluated using the MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventory II. The results show that the vocabulary size of full-term children is significantly larger than that of preterm children and that no differences exist between the group of high-risk versus low-risk preterm children. On the other hand, vocabulary size does not correlate withbiomedical complications.

O Uso do Software Iramuteq: Fundamentos de Lexicometria para Pesquisas Qualitativas / The Use of the Iramuteq Software: Fundamentals of Lexicometry for Qualitative Research / El uso del Software Iramuteq: Fundamentos de Lexicometría para la Investigación Cualitativa

A análise de dados qualitativos tem sido auxiliada por diferentes programas computacionais (e.g., Alceste, Iramuteq, TXM, Lexico). O Iramuteq é um software gratuito que auxilia o tratamento de dados textuais e oferece diferentes possibilidades de análise baseadas na estatística de texto, ou lexicometria. O artigo buscou apresentar essa abordagem e oferecer fundamentos teórico-metodológicos para o uso do Iramuteq em pesquisas qualitativas. O texto discorre sobre os princípios da lexicometria e apresenta as características, potencialidades e limites das diferentes técnicas de tratamento lexical viabilizadas pelo Iramuteq: Estatísticas Textuais Clássicas, Análise de Especificidades, Análise de Similitude, Análise Fatorial por Correspondência, Classificação Hierárquica Descendente (método Reinert - Alceste), Nuvem de Palavras e Análise Prototípica de evocações livres. Espera-se que o trabalho possa estimular a utilização crítica e contextualizada do Iramuteq em pesquisas qualitativas, assim como contribuir para a formação de estudantes de pós-graduação e pesquisadores da psicologia e áreas afins que possam se beneficiar do uso da ferramenta em seus estudos. (AU)

Qualitative data analysis has been aided by various computer programs (e.g., Alceste Iramuteq, TXM, Lexicon). Iramuteq is a free software that helps the treatment of textual data and offers different possibilities of analysis based on text statistics, or lexicometry. This paper aims to present this approach and provide theoretical and methodological foundations for the use of Iramuteq in qualitative research. The text discusses the principles of lexicometry and presents the characteristics, potentialities and limits of the different lexical treatment techniques made possible by Iramuteq: Classic Textual Statistics, Specificity Analysis, Similitude Analysis, Factorial Analysis by Correspondence, Descending Hierarchical Classification (Reinert's method - Alceste), Word Cloud and Prototypical Analysis of free evocations. It is expected that the work can stimulate the critical and contextualized use of Iramuteq in qualitative research, as well as contribute to the training of graduate students and researchers in psychology and related fields who can benefit from the use of the tool in their studies. (AU)

El análisis de datos cualitativos ha sido ayudado por diferentes programas de computadora (e.g., Alceste, Iramuteq, TXM, Lexico). Iramuteq es un software gratuito que ayuda al procesamiento de datos textuales y ofrece diferentes posibilidades de análisis basadas en estadísticas de texto o lexicometría. El artículo buscó presentar este enfoque y ofrecer fundamentos teóricos y metodológicos para el uso de Iramuteq en la investigación cualitativa. El texto analiza los principios de la lexicometría y presenta las características, potencialidades y límites de las diferentes técnicas de tratamiento léxico de Iramuteq: Estadística Textual Clásica, Análisis de Especificidad, Análisis de Similitud, Análisis Factorial por Correspondencia, Clasificación Jerárquica Descendente (método Reinert - Alceste), Nube de Palabras y Análisis Prototípico de evocaciones libres. Se espera que el trabajo pueda estimular el uso crítico y contextualizado de Iramuteq en la investigación cualitativa, así como contribuir a la capacitación de estudiantes graduados e investigadores en psicología y campos relacionados que puedan beneficiarse del uso de la herramienta en sus estudios. (AU)

Impacto del léxico mental en la comprensión lectora en niños de nivel socioeconómico bajo / Impact of Mental Lexicon on Reading Comprehension in Children Growing up in Poverty

Resumen Objetivo. Analizar el impacto que las representaciones léxicas de niños hispanohablantes, que crecen en contextos de pobreza, tiene sobre la comprensión lectora. Método. Se evaluó a 61 niños en una prueba de comprensión lectora y, a partir de los resultados, se dividió la muestra total en dos grupos: un grupo de alto nivel de comprensión y otro grupo de bajo nivel. Luego, se evaluaron ambos grupos en pruebas de vocabulario (representaciones semánticas del léxico mental) y el nivel lector (representaciones ortográficas del léxico mental). Asimismo, se exploró el nivel de memoria operativa de los niños, la realización de inferencias y el procesamiento morfosintáctico de lenguaje oral. Resultados. Se obtienen resultados que otorgan evidencia sobre la incidencia del léxico mental en la comprensión de textos escritos.

Abstract Objetive. This study analyses the impact that lexical representations of Spanish-speaking children in contexts of poverty have on the reading comprehension skills. Method. To this end, an assessment was made of the reading comprehension of 61 children. The results helped identify two groups within the sample: one with a high level of comprehension, and a second with a low level of comprehension. Each group's vocabulary (semantic representations of the mental lexicon) and reading level (orthographic representations of the mental lexicon) was then assessed. Other important skills related to comprehension were likewise explored, such as working memory, inference-making ability, and morphosyntactic processing of spoken language. Results. The results provide evidence regarding the substantial impact of mental lexicon representations on reading comprehension.

O uso do software Iramuteq na análise de dados de entrevistas / The use of the Iramuteq software in the interview data analysis / El uso del software Iramuteq en el análisis de datos de entrevistas

O domínio metodológico na análise de dados é importante na formação em pesquisa. O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar os procedimentos de análise de dados oriundos de entrevistas qualitativas com apoio do Iramuteq, software gratuito de análise estatística textual. Foram analisados 38 artigos empíricos publicados entre 2009 e 2018, principalmente nas áreas de Enfermagem e Psicologia. Trinta e três usaram a técnica de Classificação Hierárquica Descendente (CHD), 12 a Análise de Similitude, e somente três a Análise Fatorial por Correspondência (AFC). Dos artigos analisados, 33 apresentaram justificativa de escolha do Iramuteq e 10 adotaram a Teoria das Representações Sociais como referencial teórico. A principal conclusão é a da subutilização dos recursos técnicos do Iramuteq, o que limita a compreensão mais ampla do fenômeno estudado. Apresentam-se sugestões de uso isolado e conjugado dos recursos de análise do Iramuteq para contribuir na formação metodológica de pesquisadores interessados na análise de dados textuais.

The methodological domain in data analysis is important in research training. The aim of this study was do analyze data analysis procedures from qualitative interviews supported by Iramuteq, a free textual statistical analysis software. We analyzed 38 empirical articles published between 2009 and 2018, mainly in the areas of Nursing and Psychology. Thirty-three used the technique of Descending Hierarchical Classification (DHC), 12 Similitude Analysis, and only three have used Factorial Correspondence Analysis (FAC). Thirty-three of the total presented justification for choosing Iramuteq and 10 adopted the Theory of Social Representations as a framework of theoretical analysis. We conclude that there is an underutilization of the Iramuteq's technical resources, which limits the understanding the phenomenon under study more extensively. Suggestions for single and combined use of the Iramuteq analysis resources are presented to contribute to the methodological training of researchers interested in the analysis of textual data.

El dominio metodológico en el análisis de datos es importante en la capacitación en investigación. El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar los procedimientos de análisis de datos de entrevistas cualitativas respaldadas por Iramuteq, un software de análisis estadístico textual gratuito. Analizamos 38 artículos empíricos publicados entre 2009 a 2018, principalmente en las áreas de Enfermería y Psicología. Treinta y tres utilizaron la Clasificación Jerárquica Descendente (CJD), 12 el análisis de similitud, sólo 3 utilizaron el análisis factorial de correspondencias (AFC). Treinta y tres justificaron la elección del Iramuteq y 10 tuvieron la Teoría de las Representaciones Sociales como referencial teórico. Concluimos que existe una subutilización de los recursos técnicos de Iramuteq, lo que limita la comprensión más amplia del fenómeno estudiado. Se presentan sugerencias de uso aislado y combinado de los recursos del Iramuteq para contribuir a la formación metodológica de investigadores interesados en el análisis de datos textuales.

Lengua de Signos Española y Clasificación de los Números: Análisis y Propuesta de Neologismos1 / Spanish Sign Language and Classification of Numbers: Analysis and Proposal of Neologisms

RESUMEN: Las personas Sordas usuarias de la Lengua de Signos Española (LSE) en su etapa académica precisan del acompañamiento de un Intérprete de LSE que les facilite el acceso al currículum. En este sentido, y para facilitar la labor de los profesionales de la interpretación, los materiales lexicográficos de la LSE cobran una especial importancia. La calidad de los diccionarios de una lengua repercute en la calidad de las interpretaciones y traducciones. El objetivo de esta investigación es determinar si los diccionarios de la LSE recogen unidades léxicas (Signos) de calidad para los conceptos o nombres de los diferentes tipos de números. Para ello, se ha buscado, analizado y, en caso de ser necesario, creado Signos que reúnen las características básicas de las lenguas de modalidad viso-gestual. Los resultados de la investigación muestran, por un lado, que los materiales lexicográficos de la LSE presentan carencias terminológicas y, por otro lado, que en aquellos casos en los que se encuentra una opción de Signo para la palabra buscada es habitual encontrarnos con Signos que no transmiten el significado del concepto en cuestión. A pesar de ello, la LSE, al igual que todas las lenguas signadas, presenta recursos y métodos para crear nuevos Signos demostrando que es una lengua rica, capaz de transmitir cualquier tipo de información.

ABSTRACT: Deaf people who use Spanish Sign Language (LSE) in their academic stage need the support of an LSE Interpreter who facilitates their access to the curricular content. In this sense, in order to facilitate the work of professional interpreters, lexicographic materials of the LSE acquire a special importance. The quality of the dictionaries of a language has repercussions on the quality of interpretations and translations. The objective of this research is to determine if the LSE dictionaries collect lexical units (Signs) of quality for the concepts or names of the different types of numbers. To achieve that, we have searched, analyzed and, if necessary, created Signs that meet the basic characteristics of the languages ​​of visual-gestural modality. On the one hand, the results of our investigation allow us to assure that the lexicographical materials of the LSE present terminological deficiencies; on the other hand, in those cases where a Sign option is found for the searched word, it is common to find Signs that do not convey the meaning of the concept in question. In spite of this, LSE, like all Sign Languages, presents resources and methods to create new Signs, showing that it is a rich language, capable of transmitting any type of information.

Priming semántico directo y mediado ortofonológicamente en pacientes con enfermedad de Parkinson: un estudio de tiempos de reacción / Direct and orthophonologically mediated semantic priming in patients with Parkinson's disease: evidence from reaction times

El presente estudio aborda el impacto de la enfermedad de Parkinson en el procesamiento de información semántica durante una tarea de reconocimiento visual de palabras. Para ello, se comparó el rendimiento de un grupo de pacientes con Parkinson con el rendimiento de sujetos sin daño neurológico en dos experimentos. Se evaluaron los efectos de tiempo de presentación de un prime semántico directo (Experimento 1) y un prime semántico mediado orto-fonológicamente (Experimento 2). Además, se evaluó la influencia de la frecuencia léxica tanto del prime como la palabra target, sobre el acceso léxico. Los participantes estaban divididos en tres grupos (grupo clínico, grupo de control etario, y grupo de adultos jóvenes). Los tres grupos completaron una tarea de decisión léxica de tiempo de reacción en la modalidad go-no-go. Los participantes debían responder presionando una tecla del computador si el estímulo presentado en la pantalla era una palabra. En el caso contrario cuando era una pseudo palabra, los participantes no debían presionar ninguna tecla. Los resultados en base al número de respuestas correctas y los tiempos de reacción muestran dificultades de procesamiento semántico en el grupo clínico. Sin embargo, este grupo mostró ser sensible a la frecuencia de las palabras y los tiempos de presentación de estas. En su conjunto, los resultados son coherentes con la literatura existente, y contribuyen a comprender de mejor manera el déficit lingüístico presente en la enfermedad de Parkinson.

The present study addresses the incidence of Parkinson's disease in the processing of semantic information during visual word recognition tasks. In order to do so, the performance of a group of patients with Parkinson's was compared with the performance of subjects without neurological impairment in two experiments. We evaluate the effects of presentation time of a semantic prime (Experiment 1) and anortho-phonologically mediated semantic prime (Experiment 2), and the impact of the lexical frequency of both the prime and the target words. Participants divided into three groups (a clinical group, an age control group and a group of young adults), completed a reaction time lexical decision task in the go-no-go modality. They had to respond by pressing a computer key if the stimulus presented on the screen was a word. Otherwise, the participants should not press any key. The results, based on response accuracy and reaction times, show a semantic deficit in the clinical group, while this group was, nevertheless, sensitive to the frequency of the words and their presentation time. As a whole, the results are consistent with the existing literature, and contribute to a better understanding of the linguistic deficit present in Parkinson's disease.

A code biology analysis of the regulatory regions in cell lines / Análisis de biología de códigos de las regiones reguladoras en líneas celulares

Abstract Coding sequences are widely studied for their relevance in protein synthesis. However, higher organism genomes, such as human genomes, has a small amount of them, and a larger proportion of non-coding sequences. ENCODE and Epigenomic Roadmap projects discovered that regulatory functions are carried out in the non-coding regions of the human genome. These regulatory functions are part of the regulatory machinery that yields different gene expression profiles, thus, different cell lines. Whereas different environmental elements, i. e. histone modifications, DNA methylation, and other epigenomic phenomena, determine the regulatory function of genome part, the sequences' composition where these functions take place could also influence regulatory machinery. In this work, we explore the non-coding regulatory sequences and lexica build with subsequences between 3 and 16 nucleotides to evaluate the difference between the sequence composition of the regulatory regions in the cell lines. Our results show that the lexica corresponding to the regulatory regions are different based on their complexity/degeneracy, moreover, the lexica of regulatory regions in different cell lines are also different. These features suggest that non-coding sequences are an active element of the regulatory machinery and the histone code that are involved in cell differentiation.

Resumen Las secuencias codificantes han sido ampliamente estudiadas por su relevancia en la síntesis de proteínas. Sin embargo, los genomas de organismos complejos, como el humano, tiene una porción menor de estas secuencias y una mayor proporción de secuencias no codificantes. Los proyectos del ENCODE y Epigenomic Roadmap describieron que las funciones reguladoras se llevan acabo en las regiones no codificantes del genoma humano. Estas funciones reguladoras son parte de la maquinaria reguladora que produce diferentes perfiles de expresión genética, por tanto, diferentes líneas celulares. Mientras diferentes elementos del entorno, como las modificaciones en las histonas, metilación del ADN y otros fenómenos epigenéticos, determinan la función reguladora que tienen una porción del genoma, la composición de la secuencia donde estas funciones son llevadas a cabo también podrían influir en la maquinaria reguladora. En este trabajo, se exploraron las secuencias de las regiones no codificantes y los léxicos generados con las subsecuencias entre 3 y 16 nucleótidos, para evaluar las diferencias entre la composición de las secuencias de las regiones reguladoras en las líneas celulares. Los resultados muestran que los léxicos correspondientes a las regiones reguladoras son diferentes con base en su complejidad/degeneración, así mismo, los léxicos de las regiones reguladoras en distintas líneas celulares son también distintos. Estos detalles sugieren que las secuencias no codificantes son elemento activo de la maquinaria reguladora y del código histónico que participan en la diferenciación celular.

Repertórios interpretativos acerca do preconceito racial no futebol / Interpretative repertoires about racial prejudice in football Racial prejudice in football / Repertorios interpretativos acerca del prejuicio racial en el fútbol Prejuicio racial en el fútbol

Neste trabalho objetivou-se analisar os repertórios interpretativos utilizados pelas pessoas para se posicionarem diante de situações de preconceito racial no futebol. Participaram 295 universitários, com idade média de 21 anos, sendo 37,1% do sexo masculino e 62,9% do sexo feminino. Utilizou-se um questionário com uma história fictícia na qual um torcedor de um time de futebol xingava um jogador do time adversário com termos depreciativos relacionados à sua cor. Em seguida, perguntava-se se isso seria uma demonstração de preconceito e pedia-se para que a resposta fosse justificada. A análise lexical das justificativas mostrou que, das cinco classes encontradas, quatro apresentam a ideia de que o preconceito existe e apenas uma nega sua existência. Esses resultados são discutidos enfatizando o fato que o contexto do futebol se apresenta como um cenário propício para investigar expressões flagrantes de preconceito racial porque existe a justificativa plausível da competição.

The aim of this study was to analyze the interpretative repertoires that people use to position themselves for or against in relation to racial prejudice situations in football. 295 college students took part in this research, with a mean of 21 years old; 37.1% were male and 62.9% female. A questionnaire in which participants responded to questions about a fictitious situation in which a supporter insulted a player of the rival team because of the color of his skin was used. Immediately after respondents were asked to justify whether the situation presented could be considered as an example of racial prejudice. The lexical analysis performed showed that, out of the five classes found, four of them presented the idea that prejudice exists and only one denies its existence. These results are discussed stressing the fact that the context of football represents an excellent setting to research situations of flagrant racial prejudice since the competition acts as plausible justification.

El objetivo de este trabajo fue analizar los repertorios interpretativos utilizadas por las personas para posicionarse frente a situaciones de prejuicio racial en el fútbol. Participaron 295 estudiantes universitarios, con una edad media de 21 años, de los cuales un 37,1% eran hombres y un 62,9% eran mujeres. Se utilizó un cuestionario con una historia ficticia en la cual un aficionado de un equipo de fútbol insultaba a un jugador del equipo adversario con frases despectivas relativas al color de su piel. Posteriormente, se preguntaba sobre si dichas expresiones podrían considerarse como una demostración de prejuicio y se pedía que las respuestas fuesen explicadas. El análisis lexical de las justificaciones dadas mostró que, de las cinco clases encontradas, cuatro presentan la idea de que el prejuicio existe y apenas una niega su existencia. Estos resultados son discutidos enfatizando el hecho de que el contexto del fútbol se presenta como un escenario propicio para investigar las expresiones flagrantes de prejuicio racial porque existe la justificación plausible de la competición.

O que faz uma psicologia social? Intervenção na psicologia social brasileira / ¿Qué hace una psicología social? Intervención en psicología social brasileña / What makes a social psychology? Intervention in social psychology brazilian

Tema identificado como central desde as primeiras proposições abrapsianas, a intervenção tem se consolidado, na psicologia social brasileira, como um campo bastante diversificado quanto aos seus objetivos, públicos-alvo e procedimentos. Assim, a presente pesquisa teve como objetivo identificar e analisar o que foi considerado intervenção em 260 trabalhos completos publicados nos anais dos Encontros Nacionais da Associação Brasileira de Psicologia Social (ABRAPSO) realizados em 2007, 2009 e 2011. Dois procedimentos foram utilizados para o tratamento dos dados: Análise de Conteúdo e Análise Lexical. A discussão integrada dos resultados permitiu-nos um mapeamento de características que possibilitaram compreender o conjunto de atividades relatadas, tais como tipo de trabalho, sobressaindo-se os de Pesquisa, com 117 trabalhos; objetivos: Fazer, Analisar, Conhecer e Apresentar; alvo principal, sobressaindo-se Trabalhadores/Profissionais; espaços/locais, sendo predominantes as Instituições de Saúde; e aspectos metodológicos, sobressaindo-se as Técnicas Grupais, bem como a construção de um "conceito" geral atribuído ao termo intervenção.

Identificado como tema central de las primeras proposiciones abrapsianas, la intervención se ha consolidado, en la psicología social brasileña, como un campo muy diverso en cuanto a sus metas, público y procedimientos. Por lo tanto, esta investigación tuvo como objetivo identificar y analizar lo que se consideraba la intervención en 260 trabajos completos publicados en los anales de los Encuentros Nacionales de la Asociación Brasileña de Psicología Social realizados en 2007, 2009 y 2011. Para el tratamiento de datos: Análisis de Contenido y Análisis Léxico. La discusión integrada de los resultados permitió mapear características que ayudaran entender el conjunto de actividades declarada, tales como el tipo de trabajo, destacándose la Investigación , con 117 trabajos; objetivos: hacer, analizar, conocer y presentar; objetivo principal, destacándose los Trabajadores/Profesionales; espacios/lugares, siendo las Instituciones de Salud predominantes; y aspectos metodológicos, destacándose las Técnicas de Grupo, así como la construcción de un "concepto" general asignado a lo término "intervención".

Identified as a central theme since the first ABRAPSO's propositions, the intervention has been consolidated, in the Brazilian social psychology, as a field quite diverse as to its objectives, target audiences and procedures. Thus, the present research aimed to identify and analyze what was considered intervention in 260 full papers published in the proceedings of the Associação Brasileira de Psicologia Social (ABRAPSO) conducted in 2007, 2009 and 2011. Two procedures were used for the treatment of the data: Content Analysis and Lexical Analysis. The integrated discussion of the results allowed us a mapping of features that made possible to understand the set of reported activities such as type of work, standing out Research, with 117 papers; goals: Do, Analyze, Know and Introduce; the main target, standing out Workers/Professionals; spaces/places, being predominant the health institutions; and methodological aspects, standing out Group Techniques, as well as the construction of a general "concept " given the term intervention.

Repertorio léxico, campos semánticos y relaciones semánticas de tipo jerarquización de significados en niños peruanos de 5 años / Lexical repertoire, semantic fields and semantic relations of Hierarchization type of meanings in five years old Peruvians children

El objetivo del estudio fue determinar las características del repertorio léxico,c ampos semánticos y relaciones semánticas de tipo jerarquización de significados, en niños peruanos de 5 años. Se evaluó a 1.564 estudiantes de instituciones de educación básica regular de gestión estatal ubicadas en las ciudades de mayor densidad demográfica de las zonas norte, centro y sur del Perú. El instrumento empleado fue el Sub teste vocabulário del Teste de Linguagem Infantil nas áreas de fonologia, vocabulário, fluência e pragmática ABFW. Los resultados obtenidos en el nivel de repertorio léxico y relaciones semánticas de inclusión de tipo jerarquización de significados indicaron que la edad influye en el desempeño de los examinados. En el nivel de campos semánticos, el género y la edad influyen en el rendimiento...

This study aims to determine the characteristics of semantic performance in aspects related to lexical repertoire, semantic fields and semantic relations in hierarchy type of meanings in 1.564 5-year-old Spanish speaking Peruvian children. The participants did not have special education needs. They belonged to regular public school, located in the most densely populated cities of northern, central and southern Peru. The Sub teste vocabulário of Test deLinguagem Infantil nas áreas de fonología, vocabulário, fluência e pragmática ABFW was administered. The results about lexical repertoire and inclusión semantic relations of the type of meaning hierarchy showed that gender did not influence the performance of the participants. It was also observed that age and region of residence have an influence on these aspects. Furthermore, gender,age and region of residence affected the performance of the participants in semantic fields...

Enseñando palabras mediante libros ilustrados: El aprendizaje temprano de sustantivos y adjetivos / Teaching words through picture-books: Early learning of nouns and adjectives

El objetivo del trabajo que se informa fue investigar el aprendizaje de adjetivos y sustantivos mediante libros ilustrados en niños de tres años de edad. Se diseñaron dos estudios con una metodología cuasi-experimental en los que se enseñó a los niños un sustantivo o un adjetivo. Luego los participantes debían extender la palabra aprendida primero al objeto representado por la imagen, y luego a un nuevo ejemplar de la misma categoría de objeto (sustantivo) o propiedad de objeto (adjetivo). El Estudio 1 comparó el aprendizaje de sustantivos y adjetivos. Se encontró que los niños aprendieron el sustantivo pero no el adjetivo, lo que indicaría que para ellos aprender adjetivos a través de libros con imágenes es más difícil que aprender sustantivos. El Estudio 2 exploró el impacto de la información descriptiva sobre el aprendizaje de un adjetivo que refería a una propiedad visual (estampado). Esta información destacaba, por un lado, el núcleo del concepto, el estampado, y por otro la intención comunicativa del interlocutor. Se contrastó la ejecución de los niños en función de la información provista por la experimentadora. Los datos obtenidos muestran que si los niños reciben información descriptiva sobre el aspecto de la imagen que debe conectarse con la palabra, logran relacionarlo con la propiedad a la que refiere, aprendiendo el adjetivo. Los resultados de esta investigación aportan información relevante acerca de la relación entre el aprendizaje del léxico y el desarrollo conceptual y subrayan la relevancia del contexto sociopragmático en el aprendizaje de palabras.

Picture-books reading are a very common practice between children and adults. In these interactions parents assume that their children learn lots of things, especially words. But, is this interaction effective as a word learning device? Is it the same to teach different kind of words? The main question of this research arises in the intersection of two fields: symbolic comprehension of pictures and word learning. Three main ideas guided this research. Symbolic understanding of pictures is a very complex process that involves cognitive and social skills. The socio-pragmatic context has an impact in the cognitive processes involved in word learning. There is a strong relationship between word learning and conceptual development. The aim of this research was to explore 3-year-old children´s learning of nouns and adjectives in a picture-book reading situation. We designed two studies using a cuasi-experimental approach. In Study 1 we compared two groups of children: one learned a noun (category condition) and the other an adjective (property condition).The noun was pompe, a word that does not exist but has a Spanish morphologic structure. The adjective, pompeado, was built based on the word pompe, adding the suffix-ado; suffix marks that the word is an adjective. Toddlers were exposed to the new words during a picture-book reading interaction with the experimenter, then, they had to solve two successive tests. In the first test of the category condition participants had to apply the new noun learned via pictures to the real object. In the second test they had to extend the new noun to a new exemplar, an object with the same shape but different color. In the first test of the property condition, participants had to apply the new adjective learned via pictures to the real object with the property. In the second test they had to extend the adjective to a new exemplar, a new object with the same target-property. The second tests were taken as strong indicators of word learning as they involved some kind of generalization. In the first test both groups, category and property, applied the word to the real object. In the second test, while children in the category condition extended the noun to another exemplar, children in the property condition did not extend the adjective to another exemplar with the same property. In a second study we explored if children need more cues to extend the adjective to another exemplar with the same property, and truly learn the adjective. Study 2 investigated the impact of descriptive information in word learning. We set two groups on the basis of the information provided by the experimenter. One group received descriptive information highlighting the specific aspect of the picture that had to be mapped with the property. The other group did not receive this additional information. We found that only the participants that received descriptive information extended the word pompeado to a new exemplar with the target property. We propose that the descriptive information worked highlighting the communicative intention of the experimenter as well as the core of the concept. Underscoring the perceptual feature allowed much more than making a superficial association, as the descriptive information pointed directly to the heart of the concept. Overall, the results of this research are consistent with previous studies that found that it is more difficult for young children to learn adjectives than nouns. The results also highlight the strong relationship between word learning and conceptual development. This research provides strong evidence concerning the importance of socio the pragmatic context on referential understanding and word learning.

Cómo se representa la información fonológica en el cerebro: una explicación en términos de las redes relacionales / Representation of phonological information in the brain: a n explanation in terms of relational networks

Gracias a la afasiología y a la neuroanatomía sabemos que hay dos sistemas fonológicos: la percepción fonológica (en el área de Wernicke) y la producción fonológica (en el área de Broca). Por otro lado, gracias a la lingüística sabemos que el sistema léxico-gramatical conecta los significados con la fonología. A partir de todo esto se espera mostrar que las redes relacionales permiten representar cómo se conectan los dos sistemas fonológicos, el léxico-gramatical y el semántico.

Thanks to aphasiology and neuroanatomy, it is known that there are two phonological systems: phonological perception (in Wernicke´s area) and phonological production (in Broca’s area). On the other hand, thanks to Linguistics, we know that the lexicogrammatical system connects meanings with phonology. On this basis, this report aims at showing the way in which relational networks allow us to represent how the two phonological systems, lexico-grammatical and semantics, are connected.

Processamento léxico-semântico explícito e priming semântico em lesão cerebral de hemisfério direito / Explicit lexical-semantic processing and semantic priming on right brain damage

É fundamental a melhor compreensão de alterações neuropsicológicas decorrentes de lesão de hemisfério cerebral direito (LHD). O objetivo deste estudo foi comparar os efeitos de priming semântico (EPS) e o desempenho em tarefas de processamento léxico-semântico explícito entre pacientes com LHD (n=11) e controles saudáveis (n=11). Investigaram-se também subgrupos de pacientes com LHD com relação a associações e dissociações entre o desempenho em tarefas de processamento léxicosemântico explícito (evocação lexical com critério semântico e julgamento semântico) e de priming semântico através de um estudo de série de casos. O priming semântico foi avaliado por uma tarefa de decisão lexical com estímulos monossêmicos com forte relação semântica e um Stimulus Onset Asynchrony de 500ms. Ambos os grupos apresentaram EPS e não diferiram significativamente nas tarefas de processamento léxico-semântico explícito. Contudo, no estudo de série de casos houve uma heterogeneidade no perfil de desempenho na amostra de pacientes em tarefas de processamento léxico-semântico explícito e de priming semântico. Os resultados indicam a importância de estudos de série de casos para o melhor entendimento de alterações no processamento léxico-semântico em LHD

It is essential a better understanding of neuropsychological deficits resulting from right hemisphere brain damage (RHD). This study aimed to compare semantic priming effects (SPE) and performance on explicit lexicalsemantic processing tasks between RHD patients (n=11) and healthy controls (n=11). It were also investigated subgroups of patients with RHD regarding associations and dissociations between performance on explicit lexical-semantic processing (lexical retrieval based on semantic criteria and semantic judgment) and semantic priming tasks through a case series investigation. Semantic priming was evaluated through a lexical decision task with monosemic stimuli with strong semantic relationship and 500ms Stimulus Onset Asynchrony. Both groups showed SPE and did not differ significantly on explicit lexicalsemantic processing tasks. However, there was heterogeneity in the performance of the patients sample on explicit lexical-semantic processing and priming tasks on the case series investigation. Results indicate the importance of case series investigations to a better understanding of deficits on lexical-semantc processing after RHD

O papel do processamento léxico-semântico em modelos de leitura / The role of lexical-semantic processing in reading models / El papel del procesamiento léxico-semántico en modelos de lectura

O objetivo deste estudo é apresentar uma revisão crítica dos principais modelos de leitura de palavras e de texto utilizados atualmente, enfocando o papel do processamento léxico-semântico nesses modelos. Os modelos de dupla rota e conexionistas de leitura de palavras são apresentados, discutindo-se a necessidade, em cada modelo, do processamento léxico-semântico para o reconhecimento de palavras. Em seguida, são apresentados os principais modelos de compreensão de leitura: o Modelo de Construção-Integração, a Hipótese da Qualidade Lexical e alguns modelos conexionistas. Para cada modelo, é avaliada a contribuição do processamento léxico-semântico para a compreensão. Ao final, sugerem-se temas de estudo para a investigação da relação entre leitura e processamento léxico-semântico...

The aim of this study was to examine the role of lexical-semantic processing in models of visual word recognition and in reading comprehension. Dual-route and connectionist models of word reading are presented, and it is discussed how necessary lexical-semantic processing is for word recognition. Afterwards, the main reading comprehension frameworks are reviewed: The Construction-Integration model, the Lexical Quality Hypothesis and some connectionist models. For each model, the contribution of lexical-semantic processing for reading comprehension is evaluated. Finally, some themes for study are suggested for the investigation of the relationship between reading and lexical-semantic-processing...

El objetivo de este estudio es presentar una revisión de los principales modelos de lectura de textos y palabras que se usan hoy en día, centrándose en el papel del léxico semántico en estos modelos de procesamiento.. Se presentan los modelos de doble ruta y conexionistas de lectura de palabras, discutiéndose la necesidad, en cada modelo, del procesamiento léxico-semántico para el reconocimiento de palabras. A continuación se presentan los principales modelos de comprensión lectora: el modelo de Construcción-Integración, la Hipótesis de la Calidad Léxica y algunos modelos conexionistas. Para cada modelo, se evalúa la contribución del procesamiento léxico-semántico para la comprensión. Por último, se sugieren temas de estudio para investigar la relación entre la lectura y el procesamiento léxico-semántico...

El rol de la morfología en el proceso de aprendizaje de la lectura en español / The role of morphology in reading acquisition in Spanish

En lenguas con distintos sistemas ortográficos como el inglés, francés, finés e italiano se encontraron efectos de la presencia de morfemas en tareas que involucran el procesamiento de palabras escritas durante el desarrollo lector. Esta sensibilidad a la morfología se observa muy tempranamente en los lectores y también se ha descripto en niños con dificultades en la lectura. El objetivo del trabajo que se informa fue obtener evidencia acerca del rol de la morfología durante el proceso de aprendizaje de la lectura en español. Para ello se evaluaron tres grupos de niños de segundo a cuarto grado con tareas de decisión léxica y de lectura en voz alta, utilizando palabras y no palabras morfológicas, compuestas por dos morfemas en una combinación nueva y no palabras simples, sin componentes morfológicos. Los resultados mostraron, por un lado, un efecto de frecuencia para el procesamiento de palabras en ambas pruebas y, por otro, un efecto de interferencia de los morfemas en la tarea de decisión léxica y de facilitación en la lectura en voz alta para las no palabras compuestas por morfemas. Estos efectos se interpretan como el resultado del desarrollo temprano de un léxico ortográfico que incluye morfemas como unidades de representación utilizadas por los lectores iniciales para el reconocimiento y la lectura de estímulos nuevos. Esto se produce en detrimento de los procesos sublexicales que usualmente se utilizan para procesar estos estímulos nuevos y que son más lentos y laboriosos puesto que procesan unidades menores que el morfema o la palabra completa.

Several studies on literacy acquisition conducted in different orthographies such as English, French, Finnish and Italian have shown that morphemes play an early role in visual word processing such as reading and lexical decision. Also, the degree of consistency or transparency between orthography and phonology in a language seems to play a role in the size of the processing units used by young readers. In scripts with highly inconsistent grapheme - phoneme correspondences such as English or French units larger than the grapheme are early used due to the unpredictability of grapheme - phoneme finer grain size mappings. Thus morpheme -and whole word- based reading are early developed by children in these languages. Conversely, in highly consistent languages like Italian or Spanish the grapheme is a reliable unit for visual word processing since almost invariably a single grapheme maps onto a single phoneme. In the acquisition of such scripts whole word reading would be developed later on. This diminished morphological effect in normal development has been explained based on the influence of larger grain size units such as whole words as children master of literacy increases. For instance, Italian developing readers have been shown to be early affected by the morphological components of a stimulus but morphology continued to affect visual word processing only in older children with reading difficulties. Thus this morphological sensitivity seems to develop early in childhood even in transparent orthographies as Italian and it has been described to continue affecting processing only in individuals with reading difficulties. However and to the best of our knowledge very few studies on the influence of morphology in Spanish children have been conducted. None of them was on the influence of morphology in visual word processing tasks such as word reading and lexical decision. That is why the aim of the present study was to obtain evidence of the role of morphology in early literacy acquisition in Spanish. Three groups of children from 2nd to 4th year of primary school participated in the study. Participants were administered a lexical decision and a reading task with high and low frequency words and: (1) morphological non-words made up of morphemes combination (root and suffix); and (2) non-morphological simple non-words. The results showed an effect of frequency in the processing of words, i.e., better processing of highly frequent words as compared to low frequency ones. The influence of a lexical variable like frequency shows that the orthographic input lexicon is also early organized in children that learn the script of a transparent language. In lexical decision morphologically complex non-words were processed with more errors than morphologically simple non-words. In other words, morphology had an inhibitory effect in lexical decision because children had a tendency to accept morphologically complex non-words as real words. This inhibitory effect is compatible with the (at least partial) morphological organization of the orthographic input lexicon. Morphological complexity had the opposite effect during reading of non-words. Morphologically complex non-words were read with fewer errors than morphologically simple non-words. This facilitator effect of morphology for reading can be explained by the fact that for efficient reading children will rely more on larger grain size units like morphemes (as compared to the slower and less efficient grapheme-phoneme based reading processes). In sum, the results of the present study provide evidence of the early organization of an orthographic lexicon that includes morphemes as representation units in Spanish. These units are used by early readers during visual word processing of new stimuli. Such morphological processing proves more useful than sub lexical grapheme-phoneme conversion processing because it deals with larger-grain units than single graphemes and phonemes.

Análise da narrativa de Viktor Frankl acerca da experiência dos prisioneiros nos campos de concentração / Analysis of Viktor Frankl's narrative on the experience of prisoners in concentration camps / Análisis de la narrativa de Viktor Frankl sobre la experiencia de los presos en campos de concentración

O objetivo do presente artigo foi identificar a estrutura lexical mais significativa na obra de Viktor Frankl Em busca de sentido: um psicólogo no campo de concentração. O corpus do texto foi analisado por meio do software ALCESTE (Análise Lexical Contextual de um Conjunto de Segmentos de Texto), um método computacional que se propõe a decompor um texto a fim de obter as estruturas mais significativas. Os significados encontrados foram divididos em três classes subdivididas em dois eixos: Facticidade e Posicionamento Psicoexistencial dos Prisioneiros. Por meio dessa análise foi possível identificar as palavras mais características utilizadas por Frankl na sua narrativa acerca da vivência do prisioneiro no campo de concentração. Os resultados foram discutidos com base nos direitos humanos e na logoterapia e análise existencial...

The aim of this paper was to identify the lexical structure more significant in the work of Viktor Frankl's Man's Search for Meaning. The text corpus was analyzed by the software ALCESTE (Lexical analysis by context of a set of text segments), a computational method that aims to decompose a text in order to obtain the most significant structures. The meanings found were divided into three classes subdivided into two axes: Facticity and Psycho-existential Positioning of Prisoners. By this analysis it was possible to identify the most typical words used by Frankl in his narrative about the experience of the prisoner in a concentration camp. The results were discussed based on human rights and logotherapy and existential analysis...

El objetivo de este trabajo fue identificar la estructura léxica más importante en la labor de búsqueda de Viktor Frankl en busca de sentido: un psicólogo en el campo de concentración. La recopilación del texto fue analizado por el software ALCESTE (Análisis léxico por el contexto de un conjunto de segmentos de texto), un método computacional que tiene como objetivo descomponer un texto con el fin de obtener las estructuras más importantes. Los significados que se encuentran divididos en tres categorías, subdivididas en dos ejes: facticidad y posicionamiento psico-existencial de los reclusos. Mediante este análisis se pudo identificar las palabras más típicas utilizadas por Frankl en su relato sobre la experiencia de los prisioneros en un campo de concentración. Los resultados fueron discutidos con base en los derechos humanos y en la logoterapia y análisis existencial...

Habilidades lingüísticas y rendimiento académico en escolares talentosos / Language skills and school achievement in talented

El estudio del talento es un área que ha venido desarrollándose con fuerza en los últimos años. Se presenta una mirada contrastiva del comportamiento lingüístico con el rendimiento cognitivo de alumnos considerados talentosos provenientes de sectores vulnerables y que han participado del programa Talentos UdeC (Universidad de Concepción), con el objeto de determinar si existe relación entre el alto potencial intelectual, el lenguaje y el rendimiento escolar de estos jóvenes. Se consideraron datos tanto de inteligencia (Raven) como de las notas de los cuatro últimos años escolares y las pruebas de selección universitarias. Para medir el rendimiento lingüístico de los alumnos se aplicó pruebas de comprensión lectora y de vocabulario. Por una parte, los resultados muestran que un nivel de inteligencia alto se relaciona con un rendimiento alto o medianamente alto en todas las pruebas aplicadas, así como también con las pruebas de matemáticas. Por otra parte, un estudio de regresiones múltiples demuestra la importancia del lenguaje para explicar los resultados en las pruebas de selección universitaria. Las habilidades lingüísticas bien desarrolladas cumplen una función destacada dentro de todas las áreas del desarrollo cognitivo y debieran potenciarse tanto como las matemáticas en la escuela.

The study of talent has grown vigorously in recent years. The contrast between linguistic behavior and cognitive performance of socioeconomically deprived students who have participated in the ‘Programa Talentos UdeC’ and are considered talented aims at determining the correlation between high intellectual potential, language and school performance of these students. Intelligence (Raven) marks in the last four years of high-school and university admission test data were analyzed. Reading comprehension and vocabulary tests were applied to measure students' linguistic performance. On the one hand, the results show that high intelligence levels correlated with high or moderately high performance in the tests applied as well as in mathematics tests. On the other hand, a multiple regression analysis demonstrates the importance of language to explain the results in the university admission tests. Well-developed language skills play a role in all areas of cognitive development and should be as enhanced as mathematics in school.

Normas brasileiras para listas de palavras associadas: associação semântica, concretude, frequência e emocionalidade / Brazilian norms for word lists: semantic association, concreteness, word frequency, and emotionality

O presente estudo fornece medidas normatizadas para 44 listas de palavras semanticamente associadas em português, de acordo com as seguintes dimensões: concretude, frequência, emocionalidade e associação semântica. Cada lista de palavras é composta por uma palavra-tema e 15 palavras semanticamente associadas a ela. As medidas de cada dimensão foram selecionadas de bancos de dados encontrados na literatura brasileira ou coletadas com universitários. Os resultados indicaram que os valores referentes à concretude, frequência e emocionalidade das palavras-tema tendem a covariar positivamente com os valores médios das suas respectivas listas. Além disso, o tamanho do conjunto de diferentes palavras associadas semanticamente à palavra-tema apresentou uma correlação inversa com a força associativa média das listas, mas não com a concretude da palavra-tema.

The present study provides normative measures for 44 word lists in Portuguese according to the following dimensions: concreteness, word frequency, emotionality and semantic association. Each list contains one theme word and 15 semantically associated words. The measures for each dimension were selected from databases published in the Brazilian literature, or collected from a sample of undergraduate students. The results indicated that concreteness, word frequency and emotionality values tend to co-vary positively with the average values of its respective lists. Furthermore, an inverse correlation was observed between the average associative values of each list and its set size, but no correlation was found between set size and the concreteness ratings of the theme word.

El desarrollo de la escritura de palabras en español: Interacción entre el conocimiento fonológico y ortográfico / Spelling development in Spanish: Interaction between phonological and orthographic knowledge

El presente trabajo se propone ampliar los conocimientos acerca de las estrategias léxicas y fonológicas que utilizan los niños en la tarea de escritura de palabras en español, durante los primeros años de escolaridad. Para ello se analizó en dos experimentos, cómo incidían las variables de complejidad, extensión y frecuencia, así como el conocimiento ortográfico en el aprendizaje temprano de la escritura. En el primer experimento la variable ortográfica no fue considerada de manera específica, por lo que se diseñó y aplicó un segundo experimento. En el experimento dos se evaluó la incidencia del conocimiento léxico al comparar la adquisición de correspondencias consistentes e inconsistentes, dependientes e independientes del contexto. Las pruebas de escritura de palabras se aplicaron al finalizar el primer año y segundo año de Enseñanza General Básica (EGB). En los resultados, a finales de primer año, no se encontró un efecto de frecuencia, pero se observó, en cambio, una fuerte incidencia de la complejidad y la longitud en el desempeño de los niños, lo que puso de manifiesto que los mecanismos fonológicos son fundamentales en la primera etapa de aprendizaje de la escritura. Asimismo, se advirtió que los mecanismos léxicos son relativamente tardíos y se adquieren gradualmente. Sólo a finales de segundo año se encontró una interacción entre los mecanismos fonológicos y léxicos. Las implicancias pedagógicas del estudio fueron también consideradas.

This study analyzed the acquisition of word spelling strategies in Spanish-speaking children, during the first two years of elementary education. The cognitive word spelling models, initially developed for English, describe different stages in the acquisition spelling process. In the first stage, children write by memory, reproducing visual cues. At a second stage, children analyze the phonological structure of the word. Finally, in an orthographic stage, children can write words, using lexical information, without phonological mediation (Frith, 1984, 1985; Marsh, Friedman, Welch & Desberg, 1980). Even when the stages theory was discussed, these first studies allowed the identification of early lexical strategies and phonological mechanisms implied in the English word spelling processes. However, English is a language with a deep orthography, and the phonological strategy is a necessary mechanism but it is not enough to spell words properly. On the contrary, the Spanish orthographic system is shallow, and the phonemes-graphemes correspondences are very regular. Consequently, the spelling strategies could be different in these two languages, and the models developed for English would partially explain the orthographic learning process in transparent languages. This work aims to contribute to the knowledge on early spelling word strategies in Spanish. In two experiments, first and second grade children were given spelling tests designed to explore their phonological and orthographic knowledge. In the first experiment, the incidence of word complexity, length and frequency on spelling performance was explored. However, there was a possibility that, if children performed better in frequent words spelling, in relation to less frequent, they were resorting to their lexical knowledge. In this case, children were using an orthographic-lexical strategy. On the other hand, the possibility of writing complex and long words is associated to the phonological awareness level and correspondence knowledge. If children were able to easily write frequent and non frequent short and simple words, but had difficulties in writing long and complex words, they were possibly analyzing the sounds of the words and thus activating the corresponding letters. If the word was long or complex and the phonological skills were not well developed, children would have difficulties in writing them; one such problem, for example, would be in omitting letters. In this case, complexity and length variables that show the use of an analytic strategy would be influencing the performance. In the first experiment, the orthographic variable was not considered specifically, so a second experiment was designed. The second experiment evaluated orthographic knowledge, considering the orthographic characteristics of the words. The acquisition of the consistent and inconsistent correspondences was compared. The consistent correspondences could be solved using transcription rules, while inconsistent correspondences could be written only through lexical knowledge. Furthermore, consistent correspondences could be independent or dependent from context. In the first case, we refer to phonemes that are always represented with the same letter. In the other case, transcription depends on the syllabic context. Tests were applied at the end of the first and the second year of primary education. Results of the first experiment showed that, at the end of the first year, there was no frequency effect but the variables of complexity and length affected the children's performance. At the end of the second year, a frequency effect and a significant interaction between complexity and frequency were found. In the second experiment, a significant consistence effect was observed, but there was no frequency effect. These results indicate that phonological strategies are fundamental in the beginning of spelling acquisition. On the contrary, lexical mechanisms appear later and they are acquired gradually. Indeed, at the end of the first grade, frequency only affected performance of context dependent correspondences, but not independent. Likewise, interaction between phonological and lexical strategies was found only at the end of the second year. Pedagogical implications were also considered.