Maternal vaccination as an additional approach to improve the protection of the nursling: Anti-infective properties of breast milk

Abstract Human milk constitutes a secretion with unique functions of both nourishing the nursling and providing protection against enteric and respiratory infections, mainly due to its content of secretory IgA antibodies but also due to the presence of a plethora of bioactive factors. Specific IgA antibodies are produced locally by plasma cells derived from B lymphocytes that migrate from other mucosae to the mammary gland during lactation, particularly from the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts. Therefore, here, the authors will provide a comprehensive review of the content and functions of different nutritional and bioactive anti-infectious components from breast milk, such as oligosaccharides, lactoferrin, haptocorrin, α-lactalbumin, k-casein, lysozyme, lactoperoxidase, mucin, fatty acids, defensins, cytokines and chemokines, hormones and growth factors, complement proteins, leukocytes and nucleic acids, including microRNAs, among many others, and the induction of antibody responses in breast milk after maternal vaccination with several licensed vaccines, including the anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccine preparations used worldwide. Currently, in the midst of the pandemic, maternal vaccination has re-emerged as a crucial source of passive immunity to the neonate through the placenta and breastfeeding, considering that maternal vaccination can induce specific antibodies if performed during pregnancy and after delivery. There have been some reports in the literature about milk IgA antibodies induced by bacterial antigens or inactivated virus vaccines, such as anti-diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis, anti-influenza viruses, anti-pneumococcal and meningococcal polysaccharide preparations. Regarding anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccines, most studies demonstrate elevated levels of specific IgA and IgG antibodies in milk with virus-neutralizing ability after maternal vaccination, which represents an additional approach to improve the protection of the nursling during the entire breastfeeding period.

Seroprevalencia contra Bordetella pertussis en embarazadas vacunadas y no vacunadas y neonatos en un hospital universitario de la provincia de Buenos Aires / Seroprevalence of Bordetella pertussis among vaccinated and unvaccinated pregnant women and newborn infants in a university hospital of Buenos Aires

Introducción. La tos convulsa es una enfermedad altamente contagiosa causada por Bordetella pertussis. Tiene una alta tasa de morbilidad y mortalidad, especialmente, en los lactantes menores de seis meses de edad. En la Argentina, la incidencia y la mortalidad se han encontrado en aumento en las últimas 3 décadas. Objetivo. Determinar anticuerpos contra Bordetella pertussis en las mujeres embarazadas en el tercer trimestre de la gestación y en el recién nacido, medidos en la sangre del cordón. Métodos. Se disenó un estudio observacional, transversal. El estudio se inició en 2011 cuando la vacunación contra pertussis en la embarazada no estaba incluida en el Calendario Nacional de Vacunación y era opcional. Los anticuerpos se midieron en las madres en el tercer trimestre del embarazo y en la sangre del cordón umbilical al nacer. Las determinaciones de anticuerpos se realizaron con el kit de ELISA humano para IgG toxina pertussis ABCAMR. Se utilizó la prueba de chi² para comparar la prevalencia. Resultados. Se incluyó a 111 madres y a sus bebés, 35 hijos de madres no vacunadas (antes de la implementación de la vacuna en embarazadas) y 76 hijos de madres vacunadas. Los bebés de madres vacunadas presentaron anticuerpos IgG positivos en el 92% (70/76), mientras que los bebés de madres no vacunadas fueron negativos para anticuerpos IgG en el 100% (35/35) con una p < 0,001. Conclusión. En la población de vacunadas del estudio, se observó que sus hijos presentaron anticuerpos IgG positivos en el 92%. Este estudio apoya la necesidad de la inmunización materna contra Bordetella pertussis para proteger al recién nacido.

Introduction. Pertussis is a highly contagious disease caused by Bordetella pertussis. It poses a high morbidity and mortality rate, especially among infants younger than 6 months old. In Argentina, pertussis incidence and mortality have increased over the past three decades. Objective. To establish Bordetella pertussis antibody titers among pregnant women in their third trimester and among newborn infants, as measured in cord blood. Methods. This was an observational, crosssectional study. The study started in 2011; at that time, pertussis vaccination was not mandatory for pregnant women as per the national immunization schedule, only optional. Maternal antibodies were measured in the last trimester of pregnancy for women and in cord blood for newborn infants. Antibody titers were determined using Abcam's anti-Bordetella pertussis toxin (PT) IgG in vitro ELISA kit. The X2 test was used to compare prevalence rates. Results. The study included 111 mother-newborn infant dyads; 35 infants from unvaccinated mothers (before the introduction of the vaccine) and 76 from vaccinated mothers. Positive IgG antibodies were found in 92% (70/76) of infants born from vaccinated mothers whereas 100% (35/35) of infants born from unvaccinated mothers had negative results for antibodies; p < 0.001. Conclusion. In the vaccinated population of this study, 92% of infants had positive IgG antibodies. This study supports the need for maternal immunization against Bordetella pertussis to provide protection to newborn infants.

Estrategias para proteger al recién nacido y lactante menor de 6 meses de la coqueluche: Posición del Comité Consultivo de Inmunizaciones de la Sociedad Chilena de Infectología (CCI) / Strategies to protect the newborn and infants under 6 months of age against pertussis: Statement of the Advisory Committee for Immunizations of the Chilean Infectious Diseases Society

In recent years there have been Pertussis outbreaks not seen in the last 50 years affecting adults, adolescents and children and causing deaths in young unvaccinated infants. In Chile an outbreak of Pertussis started in year 2011, leaving 16 infants less than 3 months dead during this year, twice the number seen in a non epidemic year. These children were infected before receiving the programmatic vaccines indicated at 2, 4 and 6 months of age, usually from close contacts, especially their mothers. Pertussis control has not been possible for several reasons, such as limited immunity duration of available vaccines and their poor impact on nasopharyngeal carriage, situation that keeps the agent's circulation and transmission, condition often asymptomatic or unrecognized. Additionally, the use of acellular vaccines appears to be a determining factor because they induce an immune response with poor immune memory and consequently a short time duration. The acellular vaccines with reduced antigen content, available for adolescents and adults, has allowed the evaluation of various strategies but none has succeeded in reducing infant mortality. Recently a new strategy of vaccinating pregnant women against Pertussis in the second or third semester has shown remarkable results reducing up to 90% infant deaths due to Pertussis infection. This strategy prevents mother's infection avoiding child infection through respiratory droplets and also provides the child with antibodies from placental transmission. Improved pertussis vaccines are required, in the meantime the Committee considers that the pregnant immunization strategy, between the 27 and 36 weeks, with acellular pertussis vaccine should be included in our national vaccine program.

En los últimos años se han observado brotes de coqueluche no vistos en 50 años, afectando a adultos, adolescentes y escolares y provocando muertes en lactantes pequeños aún no vacunados. En Chile, en 2011 se inicia un brote con 16 lactantes bajo 3 meses de edad, fallecidos ese año el doble de muertes de un año no epidémico. Estos niños se infectan antes de recibir las vacunas programáticas de los 2, 4 y 6 meses de edad, a partir de contactos cercanos, en especial de su propia madre. El control de la coqueluche no ha sido posible por varias razones, como la duración acotada de la inmunidad de las vacunas disponibles y su escaso impacto en la portación nasofaríngea que mantiene la circulación y trasmisión del agente, con frecuencia en forma asintomática o no reconocida. Adicionalmente, el uso de las vacunas acelulares pareciera ser un factor determinante pues inducen una respuesta inmune con una pobre memoria inmunológica y por ello de duración más breve. La disponibilidad de vacunas acelulares de contenido antigénico reducido para adolescentes y adultos ha permitido ensayar diversas estrategias, pero ninguna ha logrado reducir la mortalidad de los lactantes. Más recientemente se ha ensayado la vacunación de la madre en el 2° o 3er trimestre del embarazo con resultados notables pues ha disminuido en más de 90% las muertes de lactantes por coqueluche. Esta medida evita la infección de la madre y con ello su transmisión por vía respiratoria al niño y permite transferir anticuerpos por vía placentaria. En espera de mejores vacunas, este comité considera que la inmunización de la mujer embarazada, idealmente entre las 27 y 36 semanas, con vacuna anti-coqueluche acelular debiera ser incluida en nuestro país en forma programática.

Neonatal Tetanus, Yet Not Gone: Infectious Disease Hospital Experience.

Background: Although neonatal tetanus (NT) has been declared eliminated from Bangladesh in June 2008, it is not uncommon in Infectious Disease Hospital (IDH) in Dhaka. There are various presentations of NT cases and treatment practices also vary. Objective: This study was conducted to describe our experiences with NT at IDH outlining the clinical characteristics, maternal immunization and treatment outcome. Materials and Methods: Thirty neonates admitted with tetanus in IDH from March 2011 to December 2012 were observed prospectively to study risk factors, clinical features and outcomes during hospital stay. Results: Among 30 neonates with tetanus 80% were male. Eighty seven percent of these cases were delivered at home and 83% of mothers did not receive any dose of tetanus toxoid (TT). Fifty percent of the neonates were admitted within 3–5 days of age. Shidur (Vermillion) was applied to the cord stump in 23% neonates. Hot soak was applied to the umbilicus in 5 (17%) neonates. Presenting features were convulsion and/or stiffness or rigidity (93%), inability to suck (90%) and umbilical infection (70%). During hospital care multiple cardiac arrests developed in 86% neonates and apnea developed in 60% of the neonates. Treatment was given in pediatric ward. Case fatality rate was 50%. Conclusion: Risk factors observed in NT cases were maternal non-immunization, unhygienic delivery practices and application of substances in the umbilicus. Antenatal TT administration and universal immunization under school health program should be more emphasized to prevent NT.