Regeneración de un bosque secundario afectado por el Huracán Otto en Costa Rica / Regeneration of a secondary forest affected by Hurricane Otto in Costa Rica

Resumen Introducción: Se han realizado múltiples estudios en bosques afectados por huracanes, pero la información obtenida para Costa Rica es escasa, o nula en el caso de impactos directos como lo fue Otto, por lo que es necesario ampliar el conocimiento que se tiene acerca de los efectos de estos fenómenos en bosques tropicales y los mecanismos de recuperación de estos biomas. Consecuentemente se vuelve necesario identificar la vulnerabilidad de los ecosistemas a largo plazo y cuantificar las pérdidas que se generan a diferentes escalas, producto de los intensos eventos pluviales y los fuertes vientos. Objetivo: Determinar el comportamiento y estado de la recuperación en un bosque secundario afectado directamente por el huracán Otto en Boca Tapada, Pital, San Carlos, Costa Rica. Métodos: Se establecieron 10 unidades de muestreo de 20 x 50 m distribuidas de forma sistemática dentro de un bosque secundario afectado por el huracán Otto en Boca Tapada de San Carlos. Se evaluó la condición actual del bosque, se identificaron las especies que más daño recibieron por consecuencia de los fuertes vientos, así como las que poseen capacidad de recuperarse a través de rebrotes. Se realizó un sobrevuelo con un vehículo no tripulado, y se construyó un ortomosaico que fue posteriormente digitalizado y clasificado de acuerdo con el estado de la cobertura forestal presente en tres tiempos evaluados, condición inicial, después del aprovechamiento forestal y la condición al momento de realizado el muestreo. Se comparó la densidad poblacional, diversidad y área basal con lo presentado para un bosque primario aledaño al sitio de estudio, que también fue afectado por el paso del huracán Otto. Resultados: Se obtuvo que un 69.5 % de los individuos con d ≥ 5 cm se encuentran en buen estado, un 20.3 % fue descopado y un 12.7 % inclinado sin exposición de raíces. La familia que más riqueza de especies aporta es Fabaceae, esta misma es la que más abundancia de individuos dañados posee y la que presentó mayor cantidad de especies con capacidad de rebrotar. La especie que más daños sufrió fue Couma macrocarpa (Euphorbiaceae). El área de cobertura boscosa inicial fue afectada en un 7,63 % por el aprovechamiento forestal, y en un 44.25 % por el paso del huracán Otto. Se determinó que existen diferencias significativas en la diversidad de especies (P = 0.0004; α = 0.05) y en la densidad de individuos (P = 0.0011; α = 0.05), el bosque secundario es quien posee la mayor media. No se presentaron diferencias significativas en los valores de área basal (P = 0.6951; α = 0.05). Conclusiones: Un 30,5 % de la masa forestal fue afectada por el paso del huracán Otto y la familia Fabaceae representa un papel importante en la recuperación del bosque. Además, el aprovechamiento forestal en un bosque puede aumentar el riesgo de afectación por el paso de huracanes y el bosque secundario posee mayor diversidad de especies y mayor densidad de individuos que el bosque primario.

Abstract Introduction: Multiple studies have been carried out in forests affected by hurricanes, but the information obtained for Costa Rica is scarce or null, in the case of direct impacts such as Otto, so it is necessary to expand the existing knowledge about the effects of these phenomena on tropical forests and the recovery mechanisms of these biomes. Consequently, it is necessary to identify the vulnerability of ecosystems in long term and quantify the losses that are generated at different scales, as a result of the intense events of rain and strong winds. Objective: Determining behavior and recovery status in a secondary forest directly affected by Hurricane Otto in Boca Tapada, Pital, San Carlos, Costa Rica. Methods: Ten 20 x 50 m sampling units were systematically distributed within a secondary forest affected by Hurricane Otto in Boca Tapada, San Carlos. The current condition of the forest was evaluated, the species that received the most damage due to high winds were identified, as well as those that have the capacity to recover through regrowths. An overflight was carried out with an unmanned aerial vehicle and an orthomosaic was constructed, subsequently digitized, and classified according to the state of the forest cover presented in three evaluated moments, initial condition, after logging and the condition at the time of sampling. Population density, diversity, and basal area, were compared to data obtained in an adjacent primary forest also affected by the passage of Hurricane Otto. Results: It was obtained that 69.5 % of individuals with d ≥ 5 cm are in good condition, 20.3 % were broken in the tree canopy and 12.7% inclined without exposure of the roots. The family that provided the greatest species richness is Fabaceae, which is the same with the greatest abundance of damaged individuals and the one with the highest number of species with the ability to resprouting. The species that suffered the most damage was Couma macrocarpa (Euphorbiaceae). The initial area of forest cover was reduced by 7.63 % due to logging and 44.25 % due to Hurricane Otto. It was determined that there are significant differences in species diversity (P = 0.0004; α = 0.05) and in the density of individuals (P = 0.0011; α = 0.05). The secondary forest has the highest average in both cases. There are no significant differences in the values of the basal area (P = 0.6951; α = 0.05). Conclusions: 30.5 % of the forest mass was affected by the passage of Hurricane Otto and the Fabaceae family plays an important role in forest recovery. In addition, forest harvesting in a forest can increase the risk of being affected by the passage of hurricanes and the secondary forest has a greater diversity of species and a higher density of individuals than the primary forest.

Effectiveness of two treatments to promote tree regeneration: implications for forest restoration in the Isla del Coco National Park, Costa Rica

Introduction: Isla del Coco is the only island in the Eastern Tropical Pacific with humid tropical forests; 296 plant species are reported, of them, 22% are endemic. Their ecology is poorly understood. Deforestation and the introduction of rats, feral pigs and white-tailed deer are the primary agents of forest degradation. After more than 120 years, the deforested areas have never recovered the native forest. Objective: To analyse if the deforested area keeps its resilience, we evaluated the natural regeneration and ecological processes associated. Methods: From August 2016 to June 2018, we conducted a restoration experiment consisting of a randomized complete blocks design including vegetation cutting, vegetation uprooting and controls as treatments. Plots were protected with an exclusion fence to avoid herbivores. Results: There were no differences between plant cutting and uprooting in stimulating natural regeneration. We only recorded the seedlings of two tree species, 35 individuals of Cecropia pittieri and three of Sacoglottis holdridgei, both endemic. Their regeneration established during the first 15 months mainly. At the end of the experiment, the structure and composition of the vegetation changed from bushes dominated by Entada gigas (28%) and Clidemia strigillosa (12%) to grasses dominated by Paspalum conjugatum (39%). Entada gigas has a high recolonizing potential with a growing rate of 1.6±0.2m/month. Conclusions: As filters for restoration we determined herbivores, which pose a strong negative impact in the development of the forest; the exhausted seed bank of tree species and scarce or null seed dispersion.

Introducción: Isla del Coco es la única isla en el Pacífico oriental con bosques tropicales húmedos, albergando 296 especies de plantas, de las cuales un 22% son endémicas. De su ecología se conoce muy poco. El bosque fue degradado con la introducción de cerdos y venados cola blanca y por deforestación. Las áreas deforestadas hace más de 120 años nunca recuperaron el bosque nativo. Objetivo: Para analizar si el área deforestada mantiene su capacidad de recuperación, se evaluó la regeneración natural y los procesos ecológicos asociados. Metodología: Desde agosto de 2016 hasta junio de 2018, se monitoreó un ensayo de restauración, establecido como un diseño de bloques completos al azar. Los tratamientos incluyeron corte de vegetación, arranque de vegetación y controles. Se utilizó una cerca de exclusión para evitar los herbívoros. Resultados: No hubo diferencias en los tratamientos de corte y arranque de la vegetación para estimular la regeneración natural. Se registró la regeneración de dos especies de árboles: 35 individuos de Cecropia pittieri y tres de Sacoglottis holdridgei, ambas endémicas. La regeneración se estableció principalmente en los primeros 15 meses. Luego de aplicados los tratamientos, la estructura y composición de la vegetación cambió de arbustos dominados por Entada gigas (28%) y Clidemia strigillosa (12%), a pastos dominados por Paspalum conjugatum (39%). Entada gigas tiene el mayor potencial de recolonización por su tasa de crecimiento de 1.6±0.2m/mes. Conclusiones: Los filtros determinados asociados con la regeneración del bosque son los herbívoros; el banco de semillas de las especies arbóreas agotado y la dispersión de semillas escasa o nula, según la especie.

Regeneración de árboles en ecosistemas naturales y plantaciones de Pinus patula (Pinaceae) dentro de un gradiente altitudinal andino (Azuay, Ecuador) / Regeneration of trees in natural ecosystems and plantations of Pinus patula (Pinaceae), in an Andean altitudinal gradient (Azuay, Ecuador)

Resumen Los bosques y páramos andinos poseen alta riqueza de especies, pero están amenazados constantemente por deforestación. La regeneración natural arbórea de estos ecosistemas condiciona su estructura y funcionalidad en el futuro, pero ha sido escasamente evaluada. En Los Andes del sur del Ecuador, también existen plantaciones forestales de Pinus patula (pino) abandonadas, que podrían ser escenarios para promover la regeneración natural. En un gradiente altitudinal andino, se evaluó florísticamente parámetros de la regeneración arbórea en dos escenarios de estudio: ecosistemas naturales (páramos herbáceos y bosques naturales) y plantaciones de pino. Para ello la diversidad de la regeneración fue descrita mediante la riqueza de especies, índice de Shannon y composición florística. La abundancia a través del número de individuos; estos parámetros fueron comparados en ambos escenarios. También se determinó qué variables ambientales o predictoras de: cobertura de dosel, edáficas, estructura arbórea, distancia horizontal y fisiográficas, explicaron con mayor magnitud la variación en los parámetros de la regeneración. Para ello se realizó un análisis de partición de la variación. La riqueza y diversidad de especies fueron mayores en los ecosistemas naturales, la composición florística fue diferente y su abundancia fue similar. En los ecosistemas naturales, el área basal y la densidad arbórea explicaron mayormente la variación en la riqueza, diversidad y abundancia. No así en las plantaciones de pino en donde la distancia horizontal hacia los bosques nativos fue la predictora que mayormente las explicó. La mayor diversidad de regeneración en los ecosistemas naturales (bosques) está asociada con la existencia de biotipos arbóreos, arbustivos y disponibilidad de semillas, adicionando a la eficiencia en los procesos de dispersión a nivel de micro-hábitat, aspectos que son limitantes en las plantaciones de pino, en los cuales la dispersión o disponibilidad de semillas depende de la cercanía a los ecosistemas naturales.

Abstract Andean forests and paramo have high species richness, but constantly they are threatened by deforestation. Natural arboreal regeneration of these ecosystems will condition their structure and functionality in the future, but now it has been poorly evaluated. In the Andes of Southern Ecuador, there are also abandoned Pinus patula (pine) forest plantations, which could be scenarios to promote natural regeneration. In an Andean altitudinal gradient, we evaluated floristically parameters of tree regeneration between two study scenarios: natural ecosystems (herbaceous paramos and natural forests) and pine plantations. For this, the diversity of regeneration was described by species richness, Shannon index and floristic composition. Abundance with the number of individuals; these parameters were compared between two scenarios. We determined also that environmental variables or predictors of: canopy cover, soil, tree structure, horizontal distance and physiographic explained the variation in the parameters of regeneration with greater magnitude. For this, a partition analysis of the variation was carried out. Richness and diversity of species were greater in natural ecosystems, whereas floristic composition was different and its abundance was similar. In natural ecosystems, basal area and tree density explained mainly the variation in wealth, diversity and abundance. Not so in pine plantations where horizontal distance to the native forests was the predictor that mostly explained. The greatest diversity of regeneration in natural ecosystems (forests) is associated with the existence of arboreal, shrub and seed biotypes. It is adding to this, efficiency in dispersion processes at the micro-habitat level. These aspects are limiting in plantations of pine, in which the dispersion or availability of seeds depends on the proximity to natural ecosystems.

Spondias tuberosa Arruda (Anacardiaceae), a threatened tree of the Brazilian Caatinga? / Spondias tuberosa Arruda (Anacardiaceae), uma árvore ameaçada de extinção da Caatinga?

Abstract Spondias tuberosa Arr., a fructiferous tree endemic to the northeast Brazilian tropical dry forest called Caatinga, accounts for numerous benefits for its ecosystem as well as for the dwellers of the Caatinga. The tree serves as feed for pollinators and dispersers as well as fodder for domestic ruminants, and is a source of additional income for local smallholders and their families. Despite its vantages, it is facing several man-made and natural threats, and it is suspected that S. tuberosa could become extinct. Literature review suggests that S. tuberosa suffers a reduced regeneration leading to population decrease. At this juncture S. tuberosa cannot be considered threatened according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List Categories and Criteria, as it has not yet been assessed and hampered generative regeneration is not considered in the IUCN assessment. The combination of threats, however, may have already caused an extinction debt for S. tuberosa. Due to the observed decline in tree density, a thorough assessment of the S. tuberosa population is recommended, as well as a threat assessment throughout the entire Caatinga.

Resumo Spondias tuberosa Arr., é uma árvore frutífera endêmica da Caatinga, floresta seca tropical localizada no Nordeste do Brasil. A árvore traz diversos benefícios para o ecossistema e para a população local. Ela serve de alimento tanto para polinizadores e dispersores quanto para ruminantes domésticos e é fonte de renda extra para os agricultores familiares da região. Apesar de seus benefícios, esta árvore enfrenta várias ameaças naturais e antrópicas que podem levar a sua extinção. A revisão da literatura científica sugere que S. tuberosa sofre de reduzida capacidade de regeneração, o que leva à diminuição da população. Todavia, S. tuberosa não é considerada uma espécie ameaçada de extinção de acordo com as categorias e critérios da Lista Vermelha da União Internacional para a Conservação da Natureza, já que a espécie ainda não foi avaliada e capacidade regenerativa reduzida não é considerado critério pelo UICN. A combinação de ameaças, entretanto, pode já ter levado ao débito de extinção da S. tuberosa. Devido ao declínio observado da densidade das árvores, recomenda-se uma avaliação completa da população de S. tuberosa e uma avaliação de todas as ameaças sofridas pela árvore na Caatinga.

Human regeneration: An achievable goal or a dream.

The main objective of regenerative medicine is to replenish cells or tissues or even to restore different body parts that are lost or damaged due to disease, injury and aging. Several avenues have been explored over many decades to address the fascinating problem of regeneration at the cell, tissue and organ levels. Here we discuss some of the primary approaches adopted by researchers in the context of enhancing the regenerating ability of mammals. Natural regeneration can occur in different animal species, and the underlying mechanism is highly relevant to regenerative medicine-based intervention. Significant progress has been achieved in understanding the endogenous regeneration in urodeles and fishes with the hope that they could help to reach our goal of designing future strategies for human regeneration.

Resilience of savanna forest after clear-cutting in the cerrado-amazon transition zone / Resiliência de cerradão após corte raso da vegetação na transição cerrado-amazônia

The dynamics of the natural process of recuperation of the structure and diversity of native vegetation following anthropogenic disturbance has been the subject of a great deal of controversy in restoration ecology research. The present study evaluates the natural regeneration of savanna forest (cerradão) 32 and 36 years after the clearcutting of the vegetation. We compared species diversity, and the structure and dynamics of the vegetation in two communities, one representing preserved cerradão (PC), and the other, the regenerating cerradão (RC), which was clearcut in 1976. Surveys were conducted in 2008 and 2012, 32 and 36 years after clear-cutting, respectively. In 2008, we demarcated 81 permanent 10 m x 10 m plots, 50 in the RC and 31 in the PC, and measured all live plants with a diameter at soil level > 5 cm. In 2012, the plots were resampled, including the original plants and all the recruits. The species were classified as specialists in savanna (SA) or forest habitat (FO), or as generalists (SA/FO). The RC presented the highest species richness and diversity, density, annual increment, and mortality rates. However, no significant differences were found between communities in the distribution of specialist or generalist species, or between years (2008 and 2012) in basal area or recruitment rates. While the species composition of the two communities is highly similar, the RC was characterized by a higher frequency of SA species, and was more similar to nearby savanna communities (cerrado sensu stricto). Trees in the RC were smaller and suffered higher rates of mortality than those in the PC, but also higher annual increments. While the RC demonstrated a high degree of resilience following clear-cutting, it was still found to be at an intermediate stage of succession, even after almost four decades, indicating that regeneration is a slow process.

A dinâmica de recuperação da diversidade e estrutura da vegetação nativa, a partir de processos naturais, após distúrbios antrópicos, tem sido objeto de controvérsias em estudos de ecologia da restauração. Nosso objetivo foi avaliar a regeneração natural de cerradão em 32 e 36 anos, após corte raso da vegetação. Comparamos os parâmetros florísticos e estruturais e a dinâmica da vegetação (entre 2008 e 2012) de duas comunidades de cerradão, sendo uma de cerradão preservado (CP) e outra em regeneração desde 1976 (CR). Demarcamos em 2008, 81 parcelas permanentes (10 x 10 m), sendo 50 no CR e 31 no CP e medimos todas as plantas vivas com diâmetro a altura do solo > 5 cm. Em 2012, reamostramos todas as plantas e incluímos os recrutas. Classificamos as espécies como especialistas em habitats savânicos (SA), florestal (FO) ou generalistas em habitats savânicos e florestais (SA/FO). O CR apresentou maior riqueza e diversidade de espécies, densidade de indivíduos, incremento periódico anual e taxa de mortalidade. Porém, as duas áreas não apresentaram diferenças na distribuição das espécies entre os habitats (SA, FO, SA/FO) e área basal (em 2008 e 2012) e taxa de recrutamento (entre 2008 e 2012). Apesar do CR e CP apresentarem elevada similaridade florística, o CR apresentou maior frequência de indivíduos de espécies com habitat SA bem como maior similaridade com duas outras comunidades savânicas (cerrado sentido restrito) próximas. Ainda, o CR possui indivíduos com menores diâmetros e consequentemente maiores taxas de mortalidade e incremento periódico anual. Apesar da resiliência do cerradão em relação ao corte raso esse ainda se encontra em estágio intermediário de sucessão, mesmo quase quatro décadas após o distúrbio, indicando que a regeneração é um processo lento.

What happens to the soil seed bank 17 years after clear cutting of vegetations? / ¿Qué ocurre con el banco de semillas del suelo 17 años después del corte de la vegetación?

Seed banks play an important role in the resilience of potential anthropogenic areas and are influenced by seasonal variation. The spatial and temporal heterogeneity of the forests influences the richness and density of the soil seed bank, but there is a hypothesis that such influence can be changed in anthropogenic areas, where we expect to find lower richness and seed density in relation to the seed bank of mature forests. The richness and seasonal density of seeds in the soil depth of a young caatinga forest, 17 years after an agricultural activity was abandoned, were evaluated and compared with those of a mature forest. The study was conducted at the Instituto Agronômico de Pernambuco - IPA (Estação Experimental José Nilson de Melo), located in Caruaru, Pernambuco, Brazil, in an area of tropical dry forest, known locally as “caatinga”. The local climate is seasonal, the dry season occurring from September to February and the rainy season concentrated in the remaining months. The average annual rainfall over time (time series of 30 years) is 692mm. In each climatic season (rainy and dry), the seed bank was sampled in 210 20x20cm plots (105 in the leaf litter and 105 at 5cm soil depth). The richness and seed density of the soil samples were evaluated by the method of seedling emergence. The seed bank had 47 species, with a predominance of herbaceous plants. Seasonal variation in richness and seed density in the soil (leaf litter + soil) was not significant, but 42 species of the mature forest were absent from the seed bank of the young forest, despite 17 years of natural regeneration and its proximity to the mature forest. On its own, the soil has greater richness and density of seeds than the leaf litter. The depth of seed deposition in the soil bank of the young forest significantly explained 36% of the species richness and 16% of the seed density, with a significant interaction effect with the climatic season only on species richness, explaining 4% of the variation recorded. The seed density of the young forest (1 277seeds/m²) was greater than that the mature forest indicating that the time abandoned had not yet been sufficient for complete recovery of plant diversity and there is no longer any seed limitation of pioneer species for regeneration of the young forest. Rev. Biol. Trop. 63 (2): 321-332. Epub 2015 June 01.

El banco de semillas juega un papel importante en el potencial de resiliencia de las áreas antropogénicas y sufre influencia de las variaciones estacionales. La heterogeneidad espacial y temporal de los bosques influye en la riqueza y la densidad del banco de semillas del suelo, pero hay una hipótesis de que tal influencia se puede cambiar en las zonas antropogénicas, donde esperaríamos encontrar menor riqueza y densidad de semillas en relación con el banco de semillas de los bosques maduros. La riqueza y la densidad estacional de semillas del espacio vertical del suelo de un bosque joven, con 17 años de abandono de cualquier actividad agrícola, fueron evaluadas y comparadas con las un bosque maduro. El estudio se realizó en el Instituto Agronômico de Pernambuco - IPA (Estação Experimental José Nilson de Melo), situado en Caruarú, Pernambuco, Brasil, en una zona de bosque seco tropical, conocida localmente como “caatinga”. El clima local es estacional, la estación seca ocurre de septiembre a febrero y la estación de lluvias en los meses restantes. La precipitación promedio anual (series de tiempo de 30 años) es 692mm. En cada estación climática (lluviosa y seca), el banco de semillas fue muestreado en 210 parcelas de 20x20cm (105 en la hojarasca a 5cm de profundidad del suelo). La riqueza y densidad de semillas de las muestras del suelo fueron evaluadas por el método de emergencia de plántulas. El banco de semillas presentó 47 especies, con una predominancia de las herbáceas. Las variaciones estacionales de riqueza y densidad de semillas del suelo (hojarasca+suelo) no fueron significativas, pero 42 especies del bosque maduro todavía estaban ausentes en el banco de semillas del bosque joven, apesar de los 17 años de regeneración natural y de su proximidad con el bosque maduro. Aisladamente, el suelo presentó mayor riqueza y densidad de semillas que la hojarasca. La profundidad de depósito de semillas en el banco del suelo del bosque joven explicó significativamente 36% de la riqueza de especies y 16% de la densidad de semillas, con efecto significativo de interacción con la estación climática apenas sobre la riqueza de las especies, explicando más de 4% de la variación registrada. La densidad de semillas del bosque joven (1 277semillas/m²) fue más elevada que la del bosque maduro indicando, que a pesar del poco tiempo de abandono del cultivo, fue suficiente para la recuperación completa de la densidad de semillas.

Respuesta de la regeneración natural en manglares del Golfo de Urabá (Colombia) a la variabilidad ambiental y climática intra-anual / Natural regeneration response in mangroves of the Gulf of Urabá (Colombia) to the environmental and intra-annual climate variability

The natural regeneration process allows the mangrove forests remain over time. Both, biological and physical factors can affect the establishment and early stages along the development of trees. This study examined the response of natural regeneration of mangroves in the Turbo River delta and El Uno bay (Urabá Gulf, Colombia) to intra-annual environmental variability. We quantified mortality, survival and recruitment of seedlings of three mangrove species, seasonally during one year, in 72 semi-perma-nent sub-plots of 1m². In the sub-plots, the total height and the diameter at the base of the stem of all mangrove seedlings with basal diameter less than 2.5cm were measured. Damage by herbivores was also recorded to each seedling. While Laguncularia racemosa recorded the highest rates of mortality, Rhizophora mangle showed the highest survival rate during the study period, although Avicennia germinans dominated the natural regeneration. Through a Redundancy Analysis these processes were associated to environmental variables such as: Direct Site Factor-DSF (sunlight), sediments input rate, herbivory, distances from mangroves to the river, to inner lakes, and to the coastline. These variables explained 43% of the natural regeneration variation; sedimentation rate was the most important variable, while light was very representative for the R. mangle survival. Based on historical records of precipitation, Turbo River flow rate and associated sediment loads, it was established that during the highest precipitation peak, the survival of all species decreases and during the dry season, when the conditions of flooding and sediments input were lower, it was improved. The results indicated that the sediments input rates and sunlight play an important role in the survival of natural regeneration of evaluated mangrove species.

En los bosques de mangle, tanto factores biológicos como físicos, afectan el establecimiento y los estados tempranos de desarrollo de los árboles y determinan la distribución espacial de las especies. Se evaluó la respuesta de la regeneración natural de los manglares del delta del río Turbo y la bahía El Uno a la variabilidad ambiental y climática intra-anual. Se cuantificaron la mortalidad, la sobrevivencia y el reclutamiento de las plántulas de tres especies, estacionalmente durante un año. Avicennia germinans dominó la regeneración natural, Rhizophora mangle presentó la mayor la supervivencia y Laguncularia racemosa la mayor mortalidad. Estos procesos se asociaron principalmente con el aporte de sedimentos aluviales, la disponibilidad de luz, la herbivoría, la distancia al río, a las lagunas internas y a la línea de costa, las cuales explicaron el 43% de la variación en la regeneración. La sedimentación fue la variable más importante para el reclutamiento de A. germinans, mientras la luz fue muy representativa para la supervivencia de R. mangle. Con base en registros históricos de precipitación, caudales y carga de sedimentos, se estableció que en la época con mayor precipitación se presenta un descenso en la supervivencia, y en la época seca se favorece el balance entre el reclutamiento y la mortalidad. Los resultados indicaron que la precipitación, el aporte de sedimentos y la luz desempeñan un papel importante en el proceso de la regeneración de las especies evaluadas.

Who is who in the understory: the contribution of resident and transitory groups of species to plant richness in forest assemblages

The forest understory is made up of resident and transitory species and can be much richer than the canopy. With the purpose to describe the contribution of these groups to the woody understory, five Atlantic Forest fragments were selected and studied in Northeastern Brazil. In order to analyze the understory’s structure, the sample included woody individuals with circumference at breast height (CBH) smaller than 15cm and circumference at ground level (CGL) greater than 3cm, regardless of height. The recorded species were quantified and classified into functional stratification categories (resident and transitory), and the floristic similarity between the understory and the tree stratum was calculated. Species’ importance in the understory was analyzed by height and total natural regeneration classes based on a regeneration index. The understory was richer in species (median=63.8, SD=21.72, n=5 fragments) than the tree stratum (43.8, 18.14, 5), and the similarity between these components was relatively high (median=0.54, SD=0.09). The results also showed that the studied understory in the forest fragments was mainly composed by transitory species (median=67.01%, SD=3.76), that were well distributed among height classes and had the highest densities, which may favor their future presence in the canopy’s structure and composition. The typical understory species were grouped into two strata: the lower understory, made up of species that generally do not reach more than 4m in height (mostly species from families Piperaceae, Rubiaceae and Melastomataceae); and the upper understory, with intermediate heights between the lower understory and the canopy, but with average heights that were not higher than 10m (mainly of species from families Anonnaceae, Clusiaceae and Myrtaceae). These families’ richness was commonly used as an indicator of the vegetation’s successional stage; however, such results must be seen with caution as they show that these families co-occurred and were highly important in different strata. Studying the understory is fundamental because it represents a floristically rich stratum with a unique structure, which promotes the natural regeneration of the tree stratum.

El sotobosque forestal está compuesto por especies residentes y transitorias. Con el objetivo de describir la contribución de esos grupos en el sotobosque leñoso, cinco fragmentos de Bosque Atlántico fueron seleccionados en el nordeste de Brasil. El muestreo incluyó individuos con circunferencia a la altura del pecho (CPA)<15cm y con circunferencia a la altura del suelo (CAS)≥3cm. Las especies fueron cuantificadas y clasificadas en residentes o transitorias y la similitud florística entre el sotobosque y el dosel fue calculada. El sotobosque se mostró más rico en especies (mediana=63.8, DS=21.72, n=5 fragmentos) que el dosel (43.8, 18.14, 5) y la similitud entre esos componentes fue relativamente alta (0.54, 0.09). El sotobosque está compuesto principalmente de especies transitorias (mediana=67.01%, DS=3.76) las cuales están bien distribuidas entre las clases de altura y presentan las mayoresdensidades. Las especies residentes fueron agrupadas en dos estratos: el sotobosque bajo (<4m de altura, la mayoría Piperaceae, Rubiaceae y Melastomataceae); y el sotobosque superior (altura media <10m, principalmente Anonnaceae, Clusiaceae y Myrtaceae). El estudio del sotobosque es fundamental porque es un estrato florísticamente rico con un estructura única, lo cual promueve la regeneración natural del estrato arbóreo.

Sporogenesis and development of gametophytes in an endangered plant, Tetracentron sinense Oliv

The sporogenesis and development of gametophytes in Tetracentron sinense Oliv. were studied with light microscopy. The anther has four microsporangia; its primary anther wall consists of an epidermis, an endothecium, one or two middle layers and one glandular tapetum. Simultaneous cytokinesis follows meiosis, forming a tetrahedral tetrad. Mature pollen grains are two-celled at the time of anther dehiscence. Its ovule is anatropous, bitegmic and crassinucellate; the development of the female gametophyte is of the monosporic 8-nucleate Polygonum type. Significantly, some striking features were first found in T. sinense: (1) anther dehiscence occurs soon after the endothecium fibrously thickens and the intersporangial septum degenerates; (2) tapetum degeneration is retarded, persisting up to the stage of two-celled pollen grain; (3) a few cellular events such as the vacuolization and the contraction and deformation of the pollen mother cell (PMC) and microspore are not normal at the PMC, dyad and tetrad stages. The abnormalities during male reproduction might be one of important factors resulting in the poor natural regeneration of T. sinense.

Grupos funcionaees de plantas con potencial usopara la restauración en bordes de avance de un bosque altoandino / Plant Functional Groups of Potential Restoration Use in Advancing Edges of High Andean Forests

El estudio de grupos funcionales de plantas es una herramienta útil en la identificación de características ecológicas de importancia en la regeneración de una comunidad. El objetivo de este estudio fue la identificación de grupos funcionales de plantas en bordes de avance de un bosque alto andino y la evaluación de su importancia en el curso de la sucesión secundaria en pastizales abandonados. Con base en levantamientos de vegetación de 10 x 10 m para el estrato arbóreo-arbustivo y de 1 x 1 m para el estrato herbáceo, y la revisión de atributos vitales de las especies registradas, se realizó una clasificación multivariante de las especies en grupos emergentes de plantas. Los atributos más importantes para la clasificación de los grupos emergentes fueron el método de dispersión y la ramificación basal de tallo; adicionalmente se presentaron diferencias entre los grupos del estrato arbustivo-arbóreo en la presencia de propagación vegetativa, el área foliar específica y el cociente altura/diámetro a la altura del pecho. Se definieron cuatros grupos para las especies de estrato herbáceo y cinco para las del estrato arbustivo-arbóreo, los cuales reúnen especies con estrategias de colonización similares. Dentro de los grupos definidos, las especies herbáceas dispersadas por diversos medios abióticos, las especies arbustivas con ramificación basal dispersadas por viento y las especies dispersadas por aves representan estrategias claves en la colonización del área de potrero adyacente dominada por Holcus lanatus y en la facilitación del establecimiento de especies del bosque secundario.

The study of plant functional groups constitutes a useful tool in the identification of ecological characteristics relevant in community regeneration. The aim of this study was to identify plant’s functional groups in high Andean forest advance edges and to evaluate their role during secondary succession in abandoned pasturelands. Based on 10 x 10m vegetation relevees for the shrubby-arboreal stratum and 1 x 1 m plots for the herbaceous stratum and the revision of vital attributes for each of the species found, this study uses a multivariate approach to construct a trait-based emergent group’s classification. The most important attributes in the definition of the groups were the dispersion mechanism and the presence of basal trunk ramification in woody species; in addition differences in the presence of vegetative propagation, specific leaf area index and the ratio height/diameter at breast height were found between groups of the shrubby-arboreal stratum. Four distinct groups were defined in the herbaceous layer and five in the shrubby-arboreal layer, each group contains species with similar colonization strategies. Among the defined groups, the herbaceous species dispersed by various abiotic factors, the shrubby species with basal ramification and dispersed by wind and the species dispersed by birds constitute key strategies in forest recovery in adjacent abandoned pasturelands dominated by Holcus lanatus, and facilitate the establishment of secondary forest species.

Efeito de diferentes tamanhos de clareiras, sobre o crescimento e a mortalidade de espécies arbóreas, em Moju-PA / Effect of diferente gap sizes on the growth and mortality of arboreal species, in Moju-PA

Crescimento e mortalidade de Sterculia pruriens, Vouacapoua americana, Jacaranda copaia, Protium paraensis, Newtonia suaveolens e Tabebuia serratifolia, considerando diferentes tamanhos de clareiras, foram avaliados em Moju PA(2°07'30" e 2°12'06" de latitude Sul e 48°46'57" e 48°48'30" de longitude a Oeste de Greenwitch). Selecionou-se nove clareiras da exploração florestal, que foram agrupadas em pequenas (200m²600m²). Em seu torno instalou-se parcelas quadradas de cinco metros de lado, nas direções Norte, Sul, Leste e Oeste, onde foram plantados indivíduos da regeneração natural de espécies arbóreas. No centro de cada clareira foi instalada uma parcela de 5m X 5m como comparador. A média da mortalidade total foi de 46,9 por cento, não havendo diferenças entre as clareiras pequenas(41,05 por cento) e médias(43,86 por cento), mas estas diferiram das grandes(54,96 por cento). As clareiras pequenas são mais propícias para a maioria das espécies, exceto para J. copaia e N. suaveolens, cujas mortalidades foram menores nas clareiras médias. A mortalidade variou de 14,5 por cento(S. pruriens) nas clareiras pequenas a 70,1 por cento(V. americana) em clareiras grandes, sendo que S. pruriens mostrou menor mortalidade em todos os tamanhos de clareiras. As espécies morreram mais em clareiras grandes. A mortalidade está entre os valores encontrados na literatura, permitindo concluir que não se pode classificar com precisão as espécies em grupos ecológicos somente com base na mortalidade ou sobrevivência. Em termos de crescimento, os resultados indicam que os melhores sítios para desenvolvimento das espécies são as clareiras médias, seguidos pelas clareiras grandes e pequenas. Em termos gerais, a média de crescimento em altura foi de 11,34cm e de 0,11cm em diâmetro de base, com valores maiores para J. copaia. Somente V. americana e P. paraenses não apresentaram diferenças significativas no crescimento...

Growth and mortality of Sterculia pruriens, Vouacapoua americana, Jacaranda copaia, Protium paraensis, Newtonia suaveolens and Tabebuia serratifolia regarding different gap sizes, had been evaluated in Moju Pará Brazil(2°07'30"S and 2°12'06"S and longitude 48°46'57"W and 48°48'30"W). Nine gaps from forest harvesting had been selected and grouped in small gaps(200m²600m²). Around the gaps square plots 5m side had been installed, starting in the gap border to forest inside, according to North, South, East and West directions. In these plots seedlings from natural regeneration of tree species were planted. In the each gap center was installed a square plot of 5m side as testimony, where the plantation was repeated. The total mortality average was 46.9 percent, not showing significant differences between the small gaps (41,05 percent) and medium-sized gaps (43,86 percent) but these had differed from the large gaps (54,96 percent). The small gaps environment was most favorable for the establishment of most species, except for J.copaia and N. suaveolens whose mortalities had been lesser in the medium-sized gaps, even so has not had significant differences in mortality between the different gap sizes. Mortality varied from 14,5 percent(S. pruriens) in the small gaps to 70,1 percent(V. americana) in large gaps, but S. pruriens showed lesser mortality in all sizes of gap. All species had shown greater mortality in large gaps, with remark for V. americana (70,1 percent), J. copaia (69,1 percent) and N. suaveolens (58,7 percent). The mortality are between those finding in literature and for its variability they allow to conclude that if it cannot classify accurately the species in ecological groups only on mortality or survival basis. In terms of growth, however, the results are more conclusive, with evident indication of the medium-sized gaps as the best sites for development...

Establecimiento y desarrollo de plántulas de Tabebuia rosea (Bignoniaceae) en una selva subcaducifolia manejada de la costa Pacífica de México / Establishment and development of Tabebuia rosea (Bignoniaceae) seedlings in a semideciduous tropical forest under management, Pacific coast of Mexico

We evaluated the effect of soil "scarification" and vegetation clearing treatments on the natural regeneration and initial development of Tabebuia rosea (Bertold) DC. seedlings in a moderate sized semideciduous tropical forest subjected to wood harvesting on the coast of Jalisco, Mexico. The treatments were applied under "seed" trees, and the number of germinated seedlings and their development were evaluated for nine months. Soil "scarification" promoted seed germination and initial seedling development, while the control of the competing vegetation increased the seedling growth and reduced their mortality. These results should be taken into account for the natural regeneration of this species, after clearing, to improve wood production, and should be incorporated into the silvicultural techniques currently developed in the region.

Evaluamos el efecto de los tratamientos de remoción de suelo y roza de vegetación sobre el establecimiento y desarrollo inicial de la regeneración natural de Tabebuia rosea (Bertold) DC. en una selva mediana subcaducifolia sometida a aprovechamiento maderable en la costa de Jalisco, México. Los tratamientos se aplicaron bajo la copa de árboles “semilleros” y se evaluó el número de plántulas emergidas y su desarrollo durante nueve meses. El tratamiento de remoción de suelo favoreció la emergencia de plántulas y su desarrollo inicial, mientras que el control de la vegetación competidora promovió un mayor crecimiento y menores porcentajes de mortalidad. Estos aspectos deben tomarse en cuenta para la regeneración natural de la especie después de la aplicación de las cortas con fines de aprovechamiento maderable y se sugiere incorporarlos a las técnicas silvícolas que actualmente se desarrollan en la zona.

Regeneração natural de três hectares de floresta ombrófila densa de terra firme na região do rio Urucu-AM, Brasil

Natural regeneration was studied of three hectares of "terra firme" in Coari Amazonas State, Brazil ( 40 51' 18" e 40 52' 16" S; 650 17' 58" e 650 20' 01"W) forest all individuals of height 0,1 - 3,0m and DBH less than 10cm.In the natural regeneration Protium subserratum Engl. stood out, with average values of 30,55% and Inga receptabilis (Vahl.) Wild. with 15,85%, Oenocarpus bacaba with 12,35% and Oenocarpus bataua with 11,42%, this among the arborescent species.

Neste trabalho estudou-se a regeneração natural de três hectares, em floresta ombrófila de terra - firme na região do rio Urucu no município de Coari -Am ( 40 51' 18" e 40 52' 16" S; 650 17' 58" e 650 20' 01" W), abordando todos os indivíduos com altura total maior ou igual a 10cm até 3,0m e diâmetro à altura do peito (DAP) menor que 10cm. As espécies que mais se destacaram foram o Protium subserratum Engl. com valores médios de 30,55%, Inga receptabilis (Vahl.) Wild.com 15,85%, Oenocarpus bacaba com 12,35% e Oenocarpus bataua com 11,42%, entre as espécies arbóreas.