Permanencias y transformaciones de los estilos parentales en la crianza de personas con discapacidad / Permanence and transformations of parental styles in the raising of people with disabilities

Resumen Se presentan los resultados de un estudio que tiene como objetivo establecer las permanencias y las transformaciones de los estilos parentales en la crianza de personas con discapacidad durante un periodo de siete años e identificar las posibles explicaciones que las motivan. El estudio toma como base el Modelo Estilos Parentales en la Discapacidad -MEPD- (Manjarrés & Hederich, 2018) que identifica y describe las formas como los padres educan a sus hijos. Es un estudio longitudinal de casos múltiples que hace seguimiento al estilo parental en dos momentos del proceso de crianza de 18 personas con discapacidad (2011 y 2018). Los resultados permiten identificar, siete años después, la presencia de tres de los cuatro estilos parentales planteados por el MEPD: impulsador-reflexivo, dominador-inflexible y dominado-complaciente y la ausencia del estilo dominado-distante. Se evidencia la permanencia del estilo parental original en la mitad de los casos, en los que se puede establecer la funcionalidad de éste. Por su parte, las transformaciones del estilo parental muestran dos posibles tránsitos: uno, de carácter positivo, más frecuente, hacia estilos más favorecedores del desarrollo de la autonomía del hijo; el otro, negativo, hacia estilos que favorecen una mayor dependencia continuada. Mientras que las transformaciones positivas son motivadas por el reconocimiento paulatino de la capacidad del hijo, las negativas están asociadas con la pérdida objetiva de la capacidad del hijo y de su posibilidad de relacionarse.

Abstract This study aims at establishing the permanence and transformations of parenting styles in the upbringing of disable people around age of seven and identifying the possible explanations that motivate them. The study is based on the Parental Styles in Disability Model -MEPD- (Manjarrés & Hederich, 2018) that identifies and describes the ways in which parents educate their children. It is a longitudinal study of multiple cases that tracks the parental raising style of 18 participants with disabilities, at two stages of their lifetime (2011 and 2018). The results allow us to identify, seven years later, the presence of three of the four parental styles proposed by the MEPD: driving-reflexive, dominating-inflexible and dominated-complacent and the absence of the dominated-distant style. The permanence of the original parental style is evident in half of the cases, in which its functionality can be established. On the other hand, the transformations of the parental style show two possible transits: one of positive nature, the most common, points towards more favorable styles of the development of the child's autonomy; the other, negative, points towards styles that favor a greater continued dependency. While the positive transformations are motivated by the gradual recognition of the child's capacity, the negative ones are associated with the objective loss of the child's capacity and the possibility of relating.

Autoestima e autoconceito infantil, escolaridade parental e sua relação com desempenho escolar no ensino fundamental I / Child self-esteem and self-concept, parental education and its relationship with school performance in elementary school / Autoestima y autoconcepto infantil, educación de los padres y su relación con el rendimiento escolar en la escuela primaria

A qualidade da educação é constantemente debatida pela sua característica multifatorial, havendo importantes desafios a serem superados. Considerando a influência de fatores afetivo-emocionais para a aprendizagem, analisou-se a relação entre autoestima e autoconceito infantil, escolaridade parental e desempenho escolar de alunos do ensino fundamental I de escolas da região do Vale do Rio Caí/RS. Os participantes foram 74 alunos, que responderam à Escala de Autoconceito Infanto-Juvenil, Escala de Autoestima de Rosenberg e Teste de Desempenho Escolar, além de seus pais, que completaram o Questionário sobre Dados Sociodemográficos da Família. Os alunos com autoestima elevada e autoconceito social alto foram os que apresentaram desempenho escolar médio e superior. Verificou-se associação entre menor escolaridade e reprovação parental e baixo desempenho escolar dos filhos. Nesse sentido, denota-se a importância de intervenções com vistas a promover a autoestima e o autoconceito desde a infância.

Quality of education is constantly debated for its multifactorial characteristics, with important challenges to be overcome. Considering the influence of affective-emotional factors for learning, the relationship between child self-esteem and self-concept, parental education and school performance of elementary school students from the region of Vale do Rio Caí/RS was analyzed. The participants consisted of 74 students, who answered the Self-Concept Scale for Children and Youth, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and the School Achievement Test, and their parents, who completed the Questionnaire on Family Sociodemographic Data. Students with high self-esteem and social self-concept were those who presented medium and high school performance. There was an association between parents' lower schooling and school failure and lower school performance of children. Therefore, the importance of interventions in order to promote self-esteem and self-concept since childhood is highlighted.

La calidad de la educación se debate constantemente por su característica multifactorial, con importantes desafíos que superar. Considerando la influencia de factores afectivo-emocionales para el aprendizaje, se analizó la relación entre la autoestima y el autoconcepto infantil, la educación de los padres y el rendimiento escolar de los estudiantes de primaria de las escuelas de la región del Vale do Rio Caí/RS. Los participantes fueron 74 alumnos, que respondieron a la Escala de Autoconcepto Infanto-Juvenil, Escala de Autoestima de Rosenberg y Prueba de Desempeño Escolar; y sus padres, que completaron el Cuestionario sobre Datos Sociodemográficos de la Familia. Los alumnos con autoestima elevada y autoconcepto social alto eran los que presentaban desempeño escolar medio y superior. Se verificó asociación entre menor escolaridad y reprobación de los padres y desempeño escolar más bajo de los hijos. Así se denota la importancia de intervenciones con miras a promover la autoestima y el autoconcepto desde la infancia.

Impacto de um programa de competências parentais no stress e competências de atenção plena / Impacto de un programa de competencias parentales en el estrés y en competencias de atención plena / Effects of a parenting education program on parenting skills, parenting stress, and mindfulness skills

Resumo Objetivo: Analisar o impacto da frequência do Adults and Children Together Raising Safe Kids (ACT-RSK) Programe nas competências parentais, no stress parental e nas competências de atenção plena, de um grupo de pais de crianças. Métodos: Realizou-se uma investigação-ação, utilizando um pré e pós-teste, tendo por referência a implementação do programa ACT-RSK, em 8 sessões de 90 minutos com periodicidade semanal, numa amostra de 22 pais da região Centro de Portugal. Utilizaram-se os questionários do Programa ACT-RSK, o Índice de Stress Parental, a Escala de Mindfulness Interpessoal na Parentalidade e um questionário sociodemográfico. A análise descritiva e inferencial ( Wilcoxon ) foi realizada com recurso ao Statistical Package fos Social Sciences (SPSS - IBM 24), com grau de confiança de 95%. Resultados: Os participantes melhoraram, do pré para pós-teste, nas 4 dimensões do programa: estilos parentais (M=36.32±6.61 vs. M=48.50±4.31; p<0.01); meios de comunicação (M=24.73±3.90 vs. M=30.73±2.90; p≤0.01); desenvolvimento infantil (M=55.18±11.82 vs. M=73.55±4.04; p≤0.01); e comportamento dos pais (M=34.23±7.83 vs. M=43.05±2.81; p≤0.01). Destacam-se, igualmente, melhorias consideráveis nos resultados da Escala de Mindfulness Interpessoal na Parentalidade (Z=-3.929, p=0.000) e no stress parental, que desceu do nível muito elevado (91.59) para o nível médio (74.45). Conclusão: Constata-se o impacto positivo do ACT-RSK na melhoria das variáveis estudadas.

Resumen Objetivo: Analizar el impacto de la frecuencia del Adults and Children Together Raising Safe Kids (ACT-RSK) Programe en las competencias parentales, en el estrés parental y en las competencias de atención plena de un grupo de padres de niños. Métodos: Se realizó una investigación-acción utilizando un pretest y postest en la implementación del programa ACT-RSK, en 8 sesiones de 90 minutos con frecuencia semanal, en una muestra de 22 padres de la región Centro de Portugal. Se utilizaron los cuestionarios del programa ACT-RSK, el Índice de Estrés Parental, la Escala de Mindfulness Interpersonal en la Paternidad y un cuestionario sociodemográfico. El análisis descriptivo e inferencial ( Wilcoxon ) fue realizado con el Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS - IBM 24), con nivel de confianza de 95 %. Resultados: Del pretest al postest, los participantes demostraron una mejora en las cuatro dimensiones del programa: estilos parentales (M=36,32±6,61 vs. M=48,50±4,31; p<0,01); medios de comunicación (M=24,73±3,90 vs. M=30,73±2,90; p≤0,01); desarrollo infantil (M=55,18±11,82 vs. M=73,55±4,04; p≤0,01); y comportamiento de los padres (M=34,23±7,83 vs. M=43,05±2,81; p≤0,01). Además, se destacan mejoras considerables en los resultados de la Escala de Mindfulness Interpersonal en la Paternidad (Z=-3,929, p=0,000) y el en estrés parental, que se redujo de un nivel muy elevado (91,59) a un nivel medio (74,45). Conclusión: Se verifica un impacto positivo del ACT-RSK en la mejora de las variables estudiadas.

Abstract Objective: To analyze the impact of the Adults and Children Together Raising Safe Kids (ACT-RSK) Program in parenting skills, parenting stress, and mindfulness skills in a group of parents and children. Methods: This investigative intervention was based on the application of a pre-test and a post-test before and after the implementation of the ACT-RSK Program. The program consisted of eight weekly 90-minute sessions conducted with a sample of 22 parents from Central Portugal. The ACT-RSK Program questionnaires, Parenting Stress Index (PSI), Interpersonal Mindfulness in Parenting (IM-P) scale, and a socio-demographic questionnaire were used. A descriptive and inferential analysis (Wilcoxon) was conducted using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM SPSS, v. 24) with a 95% confidence interval. Results: Participants showed improvement from pre-test to post-test in all four program dimensions: Parenting Style (M=36.32±6.61 vs. M=48.50±4.31; p<0.01); Electronic Media (M=24.73±3.90 vs. M=30.73±2.90; p≤0.01); Child Development (M=55.18±11.82 vs. M=73.55±4.04; p≤0.01); and Parental Behavior (M=34.23±7.83 vs. M=43.05±2.81; p≤0.01). Likewise, significant improvement was seen in the Interpersonal Mindfulness in Parenting (IM-P) scale's results (Z=-3.929, p=0.000) and in parenting stress, which decreased from a very high (91.59) to a medium level (74.45). Conclusion: Data show the ACT-RSK had a positive effect and improved study variables.

A Study on Effect of Educational Level of Parents on Breast Feeding Practices in Urban and Rural Areas of Lucknow

Background: It is well known that education level of father and mother is an important factor to achieve breastfeeding. But, according to some literature, there is still controversy that education of parents is really a major factor to affect breastfeeding practices. Objective: To find out relationship of educational level of parents with their breast feeding practices. Methods: A community based cross-sectional study was carried out in rural and urban areas of Lucknow. Multistage random sampling was used. A pre designed & pretested questionnaire was used and house to house survey was done. 528 infants with their mothers as respondent were interviewed and information about their educational level and breast feeding practices were collected. Results: Majority of mothers in rural areas were illiterate (58.3%) as compared to only 20.5% in urban areas. Majority of fathers were literate in both urban and rural areas.Lower educational status of mother and father were significantly negatively associated with initiation of breastfeeding within 1 hr, colostrum giving, exclusive breastfeeding.36.7% mothers started breast feeding within one hour, while 83.0% mothers gave colostrum. Exclusive breast feeding was present in 65.6% mothers. Similar to breastfeeding initiation, a random but statistically significant difference in number of women who exclusively breastfed their infants was observed in different educational classes with maximum proportion for graduates and above (82.1%) and minimum proportion for those who were just literate or educated upto primary level. Conclusion: The study reveals that perceptions of breastfeeding are higher in educated parents than illiterate parents. To reach at an ever satisfactory level of breastfeeding practice, more attention and education need to be given amongst the general people.

Habilidades sociais educativas em mães de crianças/adolescentes com diabetes mellitus tipo 1 / Social educational skills in mothers of children/teens with type 1 diabetes mellitus

Este estudo comparou as Habilidades Sociais Educativas de mães de crianças e adolescentes com e sem Diabetes Mellitus Tipo 1. Utilizou-se como medida de avaliação o Inventário de Habilidades Sociais Educativas para Pais (IHSE-Pais), o Critério de Classificação Socioeconômica Brasil e o Controle Glicêmico (HbA1C) obtido pelo prontuário médico. Os resultados mostraram que as HSEs de mães de crianças e adolescentes com e sem diabetes não são significativamente diferentes, no entanto, no grupo de mães com filhos diabéticos, as variáveis idade da mãe e do filho, tempo em tratamento e Controle Glicêmico (HbA1C) apresentaram correlação com fatores do IHSE-Pais. Os dados são discutidos em suas implicações para intervenções junto aos familiares de crianças com diabetes e doenças crônicas em geral.

The discovery of a chronic illness in childhood, as well as the routine of treatment, can impact on how parents interact with their children and consequently on the outcomes of the child's health. This study compared mothers Educational Social Skills of children and adolescents with or without Diabetes Mellitus Type 1. The assessment was done considering: Educational Social Skills Inventory to parents (IHSE-Pais), Classification Criterion Socioeconomic Brazil and the Glycemic Control (HbA1C) obtained by medical records. The results showed the ESS mothers of children and adolescents with or without diabetes are not significantly different, however, in the group of mothers with diabetic children, the variables age of mother and age of child, time of treatment and glycemic control (HbA1C) showed positive and negative correlation with the different factors of the IHSE-Pais. Data was discussed regarding its implications for intervention with diabetic children's families and chronic diseases in general.

Programa de fortalecimiento parental en contextos de vulnerabilidad social: Una propuesta desde el ámbito escolar / Program of parental strengthening in contexts of social vulnerability: A proposal from the school environment

El trabajo que se informa destaca el rol relevante de la familia y del ejercicio adecuado de la parentalidad para el desarrollo humano. Dado que las competencias parentales estarían relacionadas con el contexto social, se describen las características de las familias en vulnerabilidad social, teniendo en cuenta los riesgos psicosociales a los que muchas veces están expuestas, las consideraciones culturales de lo que significa ser buenos padres y las propias experiencias de los progenitores o cuidadores en sus familias de origen. Se revisan diversas modalidades de programas de intervención familiar y parental, destacando la importancia del diseño, implementación y evaluación de estos programas en contextos de vulnerabilidad social. En este marco, y considerando que en Argentina existe un escaso desarrollo de programas de apoyo a las familias socialmente vulnerables, se presenta una propuesta de intervención aplicable en el ámbito escolar y dirigida a fortalecer las competencias parentales. El programa propuesto, basado en el enfoque de la parentalidad positiva, integra elementos de los modelos de intervención educativo y comunitario, ya que se implementa en forma grupal, mediante encuentros expositivo-participativos y en coordinación con la escuela a la que asisten los hijos de los beneficiarios. Como conclusión y en función de la experiencia obtenida por las interventoras y la observada en las madres participantes, se presenta una reflexión sobre las contribuciones de la intervención propuesta y los desafíos pendientes para futuras aplicaciones del programa.

This study stresses the significant role of the family and a proper parenting performance for human development. Parenting in itself is very complex, since it demands a balanced combination of several essential factors such as affection, communication, discipline, and the autonomy granted to children. Given the fact that parental skills would be related to a specific social context, a description of the characteristics of families in situations of social vulnerability is provided. Likewise, it is noteworthy that parenting development would depend on those cultural considerations implicated in the concept of being good parents, and the parents or caregivers’ own experiences of upbringing, temperament and resilience. Subsequently, the main modalities of family intervention programs are reviewed, highlighting the importance of design, implementation and evaluation of the former in contexts of social vulnerability. Within this frame work, and considering that in Argentine there are very few programs supporting families in social vulnerability, the main aim of this research is to present an intervention proposal to strengthen parenting skills applicable in the school setting. The proposed program, which is based in the approach of positive parenting, integrates elements from educational and community intervention models, since it is performed in groups, by means of participative and expositive meetings and in coordination with the school attended by the children of the project participants. The proposed intervention was based on two basic areas: (a) direct intervention for parents: the promotion of parenting skills (i.e., attachment, parental empathy, parenting style, positive communication and support networks) and (b) indirect intervention for children: training parents in strategies to promote children’s development of socio-emotional resources (e.g., positive emotions, prosocial behavior, etc.). The intervention was carried out in a school within a context of social vulnerability in the province of Entre Ríos (Argentina). The organization of the meetings was conducted by an interdisciplinary team (i.e., psychologists and educational psychologists). The topics addressed were agreed with the participants based on their interests and needs; a total amount of 30 meetings of 60 to 90 minutes each were carried out. The themes were as follows: parental and child self-esteem, appropriate expression of affection, positive communication and conflict resolution, positive emotions, the strengthening of cognitive resources, prosocial behavior, social skills, family, parental and child resilience, social support networks to families and family-school relationships. The main approach techniques used were: (a) information exposure, (b) peers' feedback and co-reflection, (c) modeling of attitudes and alternative behaviors, (d) task assignments and proposals for action, and (e) interviews after workshops. The research findings are related to those found by other intervention programs made with parents and caregivers in other countries. These preliminary results show that parenting skills, the type of relationship and even the attachment with the children could be modified through the implementation of programs of parental strengthening. Furthermore, the results showed that the program could also help to improve family-school relationships. In some cases, the intervention implemented aroused the interest of the participants in the schooling situation of their children, and at the same time it improved the communication among parents, teachers, and the people in charge of the school. The exploratory results of this proposal of intervention clearly show the need to support and implement these specific kinds of programs, which aim to strengthen the resources of parenting skills and encourage a healthy development of children. Based on the experience got from interventionists and participating mothers, a final consideration about the contributions of the proposed intervention and the possible future challenges observed after the implementation of the program is presented.

Parental education and perception of outdoor playing time for preschoolers

Abstract Aim: The objective of this study was to analyze whether or not socioeconomic positions influence outdoor playtime during the week (WK) and on the weekends (WEND). Methods: The sample consisted of 485 (girls; n=223) healthy preschoolers, aged from 3 to 6 years, enrolled in kindergartens from the metropolitan area of Porto, Portugal. Physical Activity (PA) was assessed for 7 consecutive days with an accelerometer. The time playing outdoors during the WK or the WEND was reported by parents. Anthropometric data (weight and height) was collected following standardized protocols. Socioeconomic position was assessed by Parental Education (PE), according to the Portuguese education system. Results: We found differences in time spent playing outdoors either for the WK or WEND, but not for Total PA (TPA), in both sexes. However, regression analysis showed that after age adjustment, BMI and TPA for both sexes, we only found significant associations between low PE (LPE) and high PE (HPE) groups on WK or WEND. However, we found no statistically significant association for boys on the WK (p=0.06). Conclusion: Our findings suggest that socioeconomic position can influence the children's time spent in outdoor activities, especially on the weekends. This may have implications for future interventions with this age group.

Efecto de una intervención de promoción de la parentalidad positiva sobre el estrés parental / How an Intervention to Promote Positive Parenting Affects Parental Stress / Efeito de uma intervenção de promoção da parentalidade positiva sobre o estresse parental

Fundamentos: los programas de educación parental, promotores de la parentalidad positiva, reducen el estrés parental. En España y Latinoamérica son escasas las evaluaciones que evidencian dichos efectos y en ningún caso exploran los predictores de éxito. Este estudio analiza los cambios producidos por el "Programa de desarrollo de habilidades parentales para familias" (PHP), basado en la educación parental y promovido por enfermeras comunitarias sobre el estrés parental, e identifica los factores sociodemográficos asociados a una mayor reducción de estrés. Métodos: se recogió información sociodemográfica de 257 participantes, antes de la intervención y de estrés parental antes y después de esta. Se empleó la versión española de Parental Stress Scale. Se aplicaron test no paramétricos y una regresión logística binaria. Resultados: el análisis bivariado identificó reducción del estrés parental para todas las categorías de las variables predictoras. El análisis multivariado mostró que los hombres, las personas con menor nivel de estudios y las desempleadas presentaron mayor probabilidad de reducir el estrés. Conclusiones: el PHP es una intervención efectiva para reducir el estrés parental en diferentes grupos poblacionales. Este estudio contribuye a reforzar los incipientes hallazgos de estudios internacionales, y a dar respuesta al vacío de los países latinos, en cuanto al papel de los determinantes sociales como predictores de la reducción del estrés parental generados por los programas de educación parental.

Fundamentals: Parental education programs, promoting positive parenting, reducing parental stress. Assessments that demonstrate these effects are rare in Spain and Latin America and in no case do they explore predictors of success. This study analyzes the changes in parental stress brought about by the "Parenting Skills Development Program for Families" (PSP), which is based on parental education, promoted by community nurses, and identifies the socio-demographic factors associated with added stress reduction. Method: Sociodemographic information was collected on 257 participants prior to the intervention and on parental stress before and after the intervention. The Spanish version of the Parental Stress Scale was used. A nonparametric test and binary logistic regression were applied. Results: A bivariate analysis identified a reduction in parental stress in all the categories of predictor variables. A multivariate analysis showed that men, as well as persons with lower levels of education and unemployed persons had more likelihood of reducing stress. Conclusions: PSP is an effective intervention to reduce parental stress in different population groups. This study helps to strengthen the incipient findings of international research and to respond to the void in Latin American countries concerning the role of social determinants as predictors of parental stress reduction generated through parental education programs.

Fundamentos: os programas de educação que promovem a parentalidade positiva reduzem o estresse parental. Na Espanha e na América Latina, são escassas as avaliações que evidenciam esses efeitos e, em nenhum caso, exploram-se os preditores de sucesso. Este estudo analisa as mudanças produzidas pelo "Programa de desenvolvimento de habilidades parentais para famílias (PHP)", baseado na educação parental e promovido por enfermeiras comunitárias, sobre o estresse parental; além disso, identifica os fatores sociodemográficos associados a uma maior redução de estresse. Métodos: coletou-se informação sociodemográfica de 257 participantes, antes da intervenção, e de estresse parental antes e depois desta. Empregou-se a versão espanhola de Parental Stress Scale e aplicaram-se testes não paramétricos e uma regressão logística binária. Resultados: a análise bivariada identificou redução do estresse parental para todas as categorias das variáveis preditoras. A análise multivariada mostrou que os homens, as pessoas com menor nível de escolaridade e as desempregadas apresentaram maior probabilidade de reduzir o estresse. Conclusões: o PHP é uma intervenção efetiva para reduzir o estresse parental em diferentes grupos populacionais. Este estudo contribui para reforçar os incipientes achados de estudos internacionais e dar resposta ao vazio dos países latino-americanos quanto ao papel dos determinantes sociais como preditores da redução do estresse parental gerados pelos programas de educação parental.

The Effects of a Parental Education Program based on Satir Transformational Systemic Therapy Model for Preschoolers' Mothers / 정신간호학회지

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a parental education program based on the Satir transformational systemic therapy model on self-esteem, congruence, parent-child communication, and parenting sense of competence of the preschoolers' mothers. METHODS: Non-equivalent control group pretest and posttest design was used. The participants were 36 (experimental group 18, control group 18) preschoolers' mothers who volunteered from kindergartens and children's homes. The treatment for this study was based on Satir's systemic training program for parenting skills. Data were analyzed using percentage, chi2-test, t-test and t-test with SPSS 21.0 Version. RESULTS: Statistically, there were significant increase in self-esteem, congruence, parent-child communication, and parenting sense of competence in the experimental group compared to the control group. CONCLUSION: Findings suggested that parental education program based on the Satir transformational systemic therapy model can be used by preschoolers' mothers for effective psychiatric nursing interventions in parenting and preschoolers' mental health promotion.

Effects of education and income on cognitive functioning among Indians aged 50 years and older: evidence from the Study on Global Ageing and Adult Health (SAGE) Wave 1 (2007–2010).

Objectives: Relatively little is known about socioeconomic predictors of cognitive health among middle-aged and elderly Indians. The primary objective of this study was to examine the extent to which education and income influence cognitive functioning after adjusting for demographic characteristics, health risk factors and transgenerational factors such as parental education. The study also examined gender disparities in cognitive functioning across geographic regions in India. Methods: Using cross-sectional data from the World Health Organization Study on Global Ageing and Adult Health (SAGE) Wave 1 (2007–2010) in a national sample of adults aged 50 years or older, a generalized linear model was used to examine the impacts of education and per-capita income on overall cognitive functioning. The generalized estimating equation approach was utilized to quantify these impacts on respondents’ overall cognitive performance score. This technique accounted for any correlation of responses of individuals within the same household. Results: Respondents with primary or secondary education and those with education above secondary level scored 3.8 and 6 points (P < 0.001) respectively more than respondents who had no formal education. In a similar vein, individuals in higher per-capita income quartiles scored 0.4, 1.0 and 1.8 (P < 0.001) more than respondents in the lowest income quartile. Although respondents in northern states scored 1.8 points higher than those from other geographic locations (P < 0.001), females in northern states had the worst cognitive performance (1.9 points lower) compared with females in other Indian states. In addition, early and adult life characteristics such as parental education, physical activity and a history of depression were found to be significant predictors of overall cognitive functioning. Conclusion: Education and income play important roles in influencing overall cognitive performance among middle-aged and elderly Indians. In addition, cognitive performance scores varied across geographic regions, and female disadvantage was observed in northern Indian states. Policies directed towards greater educational opportunities, particularly for women in northern Indian states, or promotion of physical activity programmes, have potential to improve cognitive performance and enhance cognitive health among middle-aged and older adults in India.

Social Inequality in Birth Outcomes in Korea, 1995-2008

Social inequality in adverse birth outcomes has been demonstrated in several countries. The present study examined the separate and joint effects of parental education and work in order to investigate the causal pathways of social class effects on adverse birth outcomes in Korea. The occurrence of low birth weight, preterm births, and intrauterine growth retardation was examined among 7,766,065 births in Korea from 1995 to 2008. The effect of social inequality, as represented by parental education and work, was examined against adverse birth outcomes using multivariate logistic regression after controlling for other covariates. Parental education had the most significant and greatest effect on all three adverse outcomes, followed by parental work and employment, which had lesser effects. For adverse birth outcomes, the gap between educational levels increased steadily in Korea from 1995 to 2008. Throughout the analysis, the effect of maternal manual work on adverse birth outcomes was apparent in the study results. Given this evidence of social inequality in education and employment, social interventions should aim at more in-depth and distal determinants of health.

The relationship of one-child attachment and parental attachment / 中华行为医学与脑科学杂志

ObjectiveTo explore the relationship of one-child attachment and parerttal attachment,as well as the effect of family income and parental education on children's attachment.Methods 350 children aged over 12 years from primary school grade 5 to high school grade 3 in Nanjing were selected in two classes each grade in cluster sampling method as research objects.These children and their parents were measured by General questionnaire,Experiences in Close Relationships Inventory( ECR ) and Adolescent Attachment Inventory.The data of the questionnaires were coded for statistical analysis-Pearson conrelation to analyze the relationship of one-child attachment and parental attachment and Analyze of variance to explore the influence of family income and parental education on children's attachment.ResultsThere was a significantly negative relation(r =-0.132,P=0.014)between one-child family negative dimension and mother avoidance dimension,and a significant correlation (r =0.131,P =0.015 ) between one-child family negative dimension and mother anxiety dimension.The interaction of family income and parental culture was significant in affinity attachment of one-child (F =3.641,4.052,P =0.006,0.003).ConclusionThis study finds that one-child is more attached to their mothers than their fathers.Family income and parental education affect the attachment of one-child.

Survey of the Demands of the Parents of Children with Cerebral Palsy

OBJECTIVE: Because the treatment of children with cerebral palsy needs much time and efforts, the parents are suffering from longstanding treatment and financial problems. Home therapy based on the neurodevelopmental treatment strategy might help to solve these problems extending the time of treatment and helping carry over the effects of the treatment. The purpose of this study is to evaluate current difficulties in managing the children with cerebral palsy and needs of the parents, so that we can obtain a basic information to make the educational program for home therapy. METHOD: A cross-sectional study was performed by questionnaire from the parents of cerebral palsy. RESULTS: The parents recognized the importance of home therapy and were enthusiastic to manage their children at home in 72.7%. However, 38.2% of the parents were lack of practical idea about the skill and knowledge of home therapy, and 51.7% had much burden about time and the expenses of the treatment. CONCLUSION: The needs of home therapy for cerebral palsy by parents were high enough to develop the home program. Thus, practical program of home therapy with education of the parents can improve motor development of the children with cerebral palsy and reduce the time and expenses.