Transition from first illegal drug use to first injection among people who inject drugs in Northern Mexico: A retrospective survival analysis / Transición del primer consumo de drogas ilegales a la primera inyección entre las personas que se inyectan drogas en el norte de México: un análisis retrospectivo de supervivencia

Abstract Introduction There is little information in Mexico about the transition to injecting drugs among drug users in cities other than Tijuana. Objective We compare characteristics of the onset of drug use and first injection among people who inject drugs (PWID) from Ciudad Juárez and Hermosillo, two cities of Northern Mexico and identify factors associated with faster rates of transition from first drug use to the first injection. Method 841 PWID were interviewed in 2012 in Ciudad Juárez (n = 445) and Hermosillo (n = 396). Using lifetables, we describe timing at the onset of drug use and first injection. Cox regression analysis was used to determine factors associated with the transition hazard to first injection. Results Median age at onset of drug use was 15.5 years old (standard deviation [SD] = 5.73). The median age at first injection was 21.30 (SD = 7.22). The median duration-time between first drug use and transition to injection was 4.8 years (SD = 5.6). Controlling for sociodemographics, factors that increase the hazard of transitioning to injection are age at onset of drug use (adjusted-hazard-rate [AHR] = 1.04, 95% confidence-interval CI [1.03, 1.05], p<.01) having used cocaine, heroin, or methamphetamine at the onset of drug use (AHR = 1.14, 95% CI [1.03, 1.27], p = .01), and having received assistance at first injection (AHR = 1.25, 95% CI [1.17, 1.33], p<.01). Discussion and conclusion Results show the need to enhance harm reduction programs among non-injecting drug users so as to prevent the spread of injecting drugs in Mexico.

Resumen Introducción Existe poca información en México sobre los calendarios al uso inyectado de drogas en ciudades distintas a Tijuana. Objetivo Comparamos las características del inicio del consumo de drogas y la primera inyección entre las personas que se inyectan drogas (PID) de Hermosillo y Ciudad Juárez e identificamos factores asociados con la transición a la primera inyección. Método En 2012 encuestamos a 841 PID en Ciudad Juárez (n = 445) y Hermosillo (n = 396). Utilizando tablas de vida analizamos las edades al primer uso de sustancias ilícitas y de la primera inyección. Ajustamos un modelo de regresión Cox para determinar los factores asociados con el riesgo de transición a la primera inyección. Resultados La edad mediana al primer consumo de drogas fue 15.5 años (desviación estándar [DE] = 5.73). La edad mediana a la primera inyección fue 21.30 (DE = 7.22). La duración mediana entre el primer uso de drogas ilícitas y la primera inyección fue de 4.8 años (DE = 5.6). Controlando los factores sociodemográficos, los factores que aumentan el riesgo de transición a la inyección son la edad al inicio de uso de drogas ([AHR] = 1.04, intervalo de confianza [IC] del 95% [1.03, 1.05], p<.01) uso de cocaína, heroína o metanfetamina como droga de inicio (AHR = 1.14, IC 95% [1.03, 1.27], p = .01) y haber recibido asistencia en la primera inyección (AHR = 1.25, IC 95% [1.17, 1.33], p<.01). Discusión y conclusión Es necesario mejorar los programas de reducción de daños entre los consumidores de drogas no inyectables para prevenir la propagación del uso inyectado de sustancias en el norte de México.

Point-of-care hepatitis C screening with direct access referral to improve linkage to care among halfway house residents: a pilot randomised study

INTRODUCTION@#Linkage to care among individuals with substance misuse remains a barrier to the elimination of the hepatitis C virus (HCV). We aimed to determine whether point-of-care (PoC) education, screening and staging for liver disease with direct access to hospitals would improve linkage to care among this group. @*METHODS@#All participants were offered PoC education and HCV screening. HCV-positive participants were randomised to standard care (controls) or direct access, which provided a direct pathway to hospitals. Linkage to care was determined by reviewing electronic medical records. Linkage of care cascade was defined as attendance at the specialist clinic, confirmation of viraemia by HCV RNA testing, discussion about HCV treatment and initiation of treatment. @*RESULTS@#351 halfway house residents were screened. The overall HCV prevalence was 30.5% (n = 107), with 69 residents in the control group and 38 in the direct access group. The direct access group had a significantly higher percentage of cases linked to specialist review for confirmatory RNA testing (63.2% vs. 40.6%, p = 0.025), HCV treatment discussion (p = 0.009) and treatment initiation (p = 0.01) compared to the controls. Overall, only 12.6% (n = 13) had treatment initiation during follow-up. PoC HCV screening with direct access referral had significantly higher linkage to HCV treatment initiation (adjusted odds ratio 9.13, p = 0.005) in multivariate analysis. @*CONCLUSION@#PoC HCV screening with direct access improves linkage to care and simplifies the HCV care cascade, leading to improved treatment uptake. PoC education, screening, diagnosis and treatment may be an effective strategy to achieving HCV micro-elimination in this population.

Impact of funding harm reduction programs for people who inject drugs in Mexico / Impacto del financiamiento de programas de reducción del daño para personas que se inyectan drogas en México

Abstract Introduction Despite evidence from harm reduction programs, there are limited data on their impact in Mexico. The Mexican National HIV Program has supported harm reduction programs implemented by community-based organizations both financially and technically. Objective To obtain an estimate of HIV infections averted from 2015 to 2018. Method A deterministic model was developed to estimate the number of infections, with harm reduction projects financed by CENSIDA and implemented by Community-Based Organizations, using data reported from the period 2015 to 2018. The benefit was obtained by estimating the costs of providing prevention programs and comparing the latter to the costs of providing care. Results An analysis of 66,973 people included in harm reduction programs showed that an estimated 869 HIV infections were averted between 2015 and 2018. Potential savings obtained by providing these harm reduction services exceeded over $600,000 Mexican pesos for every infection averted. Discussion and conclusion Harm reduction services play a key role in reducing the incidence of HIV in Mexico. Ensuring their financing is necessary since, combined with other services, they are a cost-effective tool for reducing the economic and public health burden of HIV/AIDS.

Resumen Introducción A pesar de la evidencia que aportan los programas de reducción de daños, hay pocos datos sobre el impacto que tienen en México. El Programa Nacional de VIH en México ha apoyado técnica y financieramente la implementación de proyectos de reducción de daños operados por la sociedad civil. Objetivo Estimar el número de infecciones de VIH evitadas en el periodo de 2015 a 2018. Método Se desarrolló un modelo determinista para estimar el número de infecciones evitadas con los proyectos de reducción de daños financiados por CENSIDA e implementados por organizaciones de la sociedad civil a partir de los datos reportados durante el periodo 2015-2018. El beneficio se obtuvo al estimar el costo de proveer programas de prevención comparado con el costo de proveer tratamiento. Resultados Del análisis de 66,973 personas contactadas con los programas, se estimaron 869 infecciones de VIH evitadas entre 2015 y 2018. El ahorro potencial de proveer estos servicios de reducción de daños fue de más de $600 mil pesos por infección evitada. Discusión y conclusión Los servicios de reducción de daños cumplen un papel importante en la reducción de la incidencia de VIH en México. Asegurar su financiamiento es necesario ya que es una herramienta costo-efectiva si se le combina con otras estrategias para reducir la carga económica y de salud pública del VIH/sida.

Gender matters? How does gender shape risk environment for syringe sharing among people who inject drugs in northern Mexico. Results from a cross-sectional survey / ¿Importa el género? Evaluando el género como un componente del entorno de riesgo para el uso compartido de jeringas entre personas que se inyectan drogas en el norte de México. Resultados de una encuesta transversal

Abstract Introduction HIV prevalence among people who inject drugs (PWID) is 5%. Studies have found a HIV prevalence around 10% among women who inject drugs (WWID) and 5% among men. Objective To describe characteristics of risk environment that play different roles among men and women who inject drugs in Mexico that could be associated with those differentials. Method In 2012 were interviewed in Hermosillo and Ciudad Juarez in places where population gathered. From them, 824 PWID 74.0% were men and 26.0% were women. Using chi-square test we analyzed associations of gender with demographics characteristics, drug use dynamics, and injecting behaviors. We fitted different generalized linear mixed models with random effects to test the hypothesis that predictors of receptive needle sharing have different effects on men and women. Results Descriptive analysis showed that women live in conditions of higher vulnerability than men in terms of migration, educational attainment, occupation, and income. Women also reported a higher frequency of drug injection, a higher number of drugs used, and a higher prevalence of sharing needles. Variables significantly associated with the likelihood of sharing needles were: having being injected for someone else at first drug injection (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.60, 95% confidence interval CI [1.11, 2.25], p < .05); injecting once a day or more (AOR = 1.80, 95% CI [1.17, 2.70], p < .05), using alcohol or drugs at least half of the time at their sexual encounters (AOR = 1.64, 95% CI [1.16, 2.47], p < .05), experience of syringe confiscation by police (AOR = 1.54, 95% CI [1.13, 2.19], p < .05), and perceiving syringe availability as hard or very hard (AOR = 2.29, 95% CI [1.49, 3.32], p < .01). For women the most significant variable associated with syringe sharing was perception of syringe availability (AOR = 3.15, 95% CI [1.25, 7.91], p < .05), while for men was syringe confiscation by police (AOR = 1.74, 95% CI [1.20, 2.50], p < .05). Discussion and conclusion Results suggests the need to design and implement harm reduction programs that tackle the specific need of WID. Enhancing syringe availability through permanent harm reduction programs, implemented in coordination between public health authorities and community-based organizations, is a basic action to stop HIV spreading among PWID in northern Mexico, along with the decriminalization policies towards these population.

Resumen Introducción La prevalencia del VIH entre personas que se inyectan drogas (PIDs) es del 5%. Los estudios han encontrado que la prevalencia del VIH es aproximadamente del 10% entre las mujeres que se inyectan drogas (MIDs) y del 5% entre los hombres. Objetivo Este artículo busca describir detalladamente diferencias en las características que forman ambientes de riesgo diferenciados al VIH entre hombres y mujeres que se inyectan drogas en México. Método Se entrevistó a 824 personas que se inyectan drogas (PIDs) en Hermosillo y Ciudad Juárez en 2012 en lugares de encuentro de población. El 74.0% fueron hombres y el 26.0% mujeres. Mediante la prueba de chi-cuadrada, se caracterizan perfiles sociodemográficos, dinámicas de uso de drogas y de inyección por sexo. Se ajustan diferentes modelos lineales mixtos generalizados para probar la hipótesis que los predictores del uso compartido de jeringas tienen efectos distintos en hombres y mujeres. Resultados El análisis descriptivo mostró que las mujeres viven en condiciones de mayor vulnerabilidad que los hombres en términos de migración, logros educativos, ocupación e ingresos. Las mujeres también informaron una mayor frecuencia de inyección de drogas, mayor número de drogas usadas y mayor prevalencia de uso compartido de jeringas. Las variables significativamente asociadas con la probabilidad de compartir jeringas fueron haber sido inyectado por alguien más al momento de la primera inyección (Razones de momios ajustadas [AOR] = 1.60, 95% intervalo de confianza IC [1.11, 2.25], p < .05), inyectarse una vez al día o más (AOR = 1.80, 95% IC [1.17, 2.70], p < .05), consumir alcohol o drogas en al menos la mitad de sus encuentros sexuales (AOR = 1.64, 95% IC [1.16, 2.47], p < .05), haber enfrentado confiscación de jeringas por parte de la policía (AOR = 1.54, 95% IC [1.13, 2.19], p < .05) y tener una mala percepción de la disponibilidad de jeringas (AOR = 2.29, 95% IC [1.49, 3.32], p < .01). Entre las mujeres, la variable más significativa asociado a la probabilidad de compartir jeringas fue la mala percepción de la disponibilidad de jeringas nuevas (AOR = 3.15, 95% IC [1.25, 7.91], p < .05), mientras que en los hombres fue la experiencia de acoso policial (AOR = 1.74, 95% IC [1.20, 2.50], p < .05). Discusión y conclusión Los resultados sugieren la necesidad de diseñar e implementar programas de reducción de daños que tomen en cuenta las necesidades específicas de las MIDs. Es urgente mejorar la disponibilidad de jeringas entre PWIDs en el norte de México por medio de programas permanentes de reducción de daños, implementados en coordinación entre las autoridades de salud pública y las organizaciones comunitarias y en conjunto con políticas de descriminalización de esta población.

Current Profile of Hepatitis C in Tripura, India

Introduction: Viral hepatitis is one of the common causes of chronic liver disease. Hepatitis C is the second most importantcause of chronic viral hepatitis. Globally, an estimated 71 million people have chronic hepatitis C infection. In 2015, there were1.75 million new hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections. Approximately 399,000 people die each year due to HCV-related cirrhosisand hepatocellular carcinoma. Highest numbers of infections are noted in Egypt. South East Asian region countries are alsohaving high prevalence. The prevalence in India is around 1%. In Tripura, blood bank-based study shows prevalence around0.1%. Higher prevalence was seen in patient on maintenance hemodialysis.Objectives: The study was designed to determine. (1) Mode of transmission of hepatitis C in Tripura, (2) To evaluate genotypicpattern of hepatitis C infection in Tripura, (3) To evaluate coinfection with human immune deficiency virus (HIV)/hepatitis B virus (HBV).Materials and Methods: It was a cross-sectional study done on 60 consecutive hepatitis C patients attended the liver clinic ofHepatitis Foundation of Tripura between January 2018 and December 2018.Results: The study reveals that in this group, 65% hepatitis C patients were males and 35% were females and 63.3% patientsare from rural areas whereas 36.7% patients are from urban areas. Study shows that there is shift of age among hepatitis Cpatients from older to the younger group. It was observed that 5% of hepatitis C patients had coinfection with HIV infectionbut no coinfection with HBV. Regarding mode transmission of hepatitis C, 30% are through blood transmission, 20% throughdrug abuse, 16.7% patients through sexual route, 11.6% patients through dialysis, 1.7% prenatal transmission, and 20%remain unknown. Genotype 3 was 75% (3a was found in 55% and 20% were genotype 3b,) and genotype 1 was 25% (21.7%genotype 1a and 3.3% were genotype 1b). In the study group, 18% were in decompensated chronic liver disease.Discussion: The prevalence of HCV infection seems to be increasing among people who inject drugs in Tripura. Malepreponderance in this study may be due to more exposure to drugs among males. Higher prevalence of Hepatitis C amongthe rural people may be due to increase quackery practice in the rural areas.