Production of Fungal Pectin Lyase and Polygalacturonase from Fruit Wastes by Solid State Fermentation

Polygalacturonase (PG or PGase) and Pectin lyase (PL) are depolymerase enzymes that split the ?-1, 4-glycosidic linkages in the backbone of homogalacturonans. They are produced by microorganisms degrading pectin-containing substrates. PG and PL were produced in the solid-state fermentation (SSF) of beans testa (BT), mango peels (MP), Plantain peels (PP), and BT: MP: PP (1:1:1). Substrates were seeded with individual fungal strains namely Aspergillus tamarii, Aspergillus terreus, Aspergillus piperis, Aspergillus parasiticus and Mucor piriformis. PG production ranged from 0.0377 - 141.0095 U/g with A. tamarii, A. terreus and A. piperis producing the highest on mango peels. PL production ranged from 50.50 - 10,852.50 U/g with Mucor piriformis producing the highest on plantain peels. The pH of the fermentation medium changed during growth, metabolism, and pectinase production. The best pH for pectinase production falls within the acidic range. Unconventional substrates such as PP are viable for pectinase production, and PL yield in SSF is improved by compositing substrates.

Lentinus crinitus response to blue light on carbohydrate-active enzymes / Resposta de Lentinus crinitus à luz azul em enzimas ativas por carboidratos

Fungi are capable of sensing light from ultraviolet to far-red and they use light as a source of information about the environment anticipating stress and adverse conditions. Lentinus crinitus is a lignin-degrading fungus which produces laccase and other enzymes of biotechnological interest. The effect of blue light on fungal enzymatic activity has been studied; however, it has not been found studies on the effect of the blue light on carbohydrate-active enzymes and on mycelial biomass production of L. crinitus. We aimed to investigate carbohydrate-active enzymes activity and mycelial biomass production of L. crinitus cultivated under continuous illumination with blue light. L. crinitus was cultivated in malt extract medium in the dark, without agitation, and under continuous illumination with blue light-emitting diodes. The blue light reduced the total cellulase, pectinase and xylanase activities but increased the endoglucanase activity. Blue light reduced the mycelial growth of L. crinitus in 26% and the enzymatic activity-to-mycelial biomass ratio (U mg-1 dry basis) increased in 10% total cellulase, 33% endoglucanase, and 16% pectinase activities. Also, it is suggested that L. crinitus has a photosensory system and it could lead to new process of obtaining enzymes of biotechnological interest.

Fungos são capazes de sentir a luz com comprimentos de onda que variam do ultravioleta ao infravermelho e usam a luz como fonte de informação sobre o ambiente, antecipando condições adversas e de estresse. Lentinus crinitus é um fungo ligninolítico que produz lacase e outras enzimas de interesse biotecnológico. O efeito da luz azul na atividade enzimática de fungos já foi estudado, contudo, ainda não há estudos sobre o efeito da luz azul na produção de enzimas ativas sobre carboidratos (CAZymes, carbohydrate-active enzymes) e de biomassa micelial de L. crinitus. O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar a avitivade de CAZymes e a produção de biomassa micelial de L. crinitus cultivado sob iluminação continua com luz azul. L. crinitus foi cultivado em meio extrato de malte, sem agitação, na ausência de luz e sob luz continua fornecida por diodos emissores de luz azul. A luz azul reduziu a atividade de cellulase total, pectinase e xilanase, mas aumentou a atividade de endoglucanase. A luz azul reduziu o crescimento micelial de L. crinitus em 26% e aumentou a razão atividade enzimática/biomassa micelial (U mg-1 em base seca) de cellulase total em 10%, endoglucanase em 33% e pectinase em 16%. Além disso, sugere-se que L. crinitus possua um sistema fotossensorial que poderia ser explorado para a otimização de bioprocessos que visam a obtenção de enzimas de interesse biotecnológico.

Use of Agro-Industrial Wastes for the Production of a Wild Yeast Enzyme with Disintegration Activity on Plant Tissues

Abstract The objective of the present study was to develop a cost-effective medium, using agro-industrial wastes for the production of a polygalacturonase by Wickerhanomyces anomalus of interest in cassava starch industries. The effect of several raw agro-industrial wastes and others nutrients on polygalacturonase production by W. anomalus, were evaluated, in a reference fermentation medium, using statistical designs, by batch culture. The ability of the cell-free supernatant to extract cassava starch was evaluated. Lemon peel was the best inducer for the production of PGase. Statistical analysis of the data showed that lemon peel, Mg+2 and PO4HK2 had significant effect on PGase production, and the others variables (yeast extract, Ca+2, Fe+2, amino acid and trace element solution) were no significant. PGase synthesis reached ~31 EUmL-1, in the OFM (glucose, lemon peel, urea, vitamins, KH2PO4 and MgSO4), after 12 h of culture, at a lab scale bioreactor. PGase of W. anomalus, was able to disintegrate cassava tuber tissue, and the starch granules contained within the cells were released into the reaction medium. Lemon peel can be used as inducer for PGase production by W. anomalus, in a low cost culture medium, appropriate for the production of the enzyme at large scale.

Enzymatic preparation of fructooligosaccharides-rich burdock syrup with enhanced antioxidative properties

Background: Burdock (Arctium lappa L.) is a fructan-rich plant with prebiotic potential. The aim of this study was to develop an efficient enzymatic route to prepare fructooligosaccharides (FOS)-rich and highly antioxidative syrup using burdock root as a raw material. Results: Endo-inulinase significantly improved the yield of FOS 2.4-fold while tannase pretreatment further increased the yield of FOS 2.8-fold. Other enzymes, including endo-polygalacturonase, endo-glucanase and endo-xylanase, were able to increase the yield of total soluble sugar by 11.1% (w/w). By this process, a new enzymatic process for burdock syrup was developed and the yield of burdock syrup increased by 25% (w/w), whereas with FOS, total soluble sugars, total soluble protein and total soluble polyphenols were enhanced to 28.8%, 53.3%, 8.9% and 3.3% (w/w), respectively. Additionally, the scavenging abilities of DPPH and hydroxyl radicals, and total antioxidant capacity of the syrup were increased by 23.7%, 51.8% and 35.4%, respectively. Conclusions: Our results could be applied to the development of efficient extraction of valuable products from agricultural materials using enzyme-mediated methods.

Improvement of Bacillus strains by mutation for overproduction of exopolygalacturonases.

Pectinases, produced by microorganisms, have wide range application in food industry, textile processing, paper making, coffee and tea fermentation, etc. It accounts for 10% of the global industrial enzymes produced. The most important and widely used commercial pectinase polygalacturonase is produced by alkalophilic strains of Bacillus sp. and Streptomyces sp. Here, we explored 29 bacterial strains isolated from rotten mango samples for polygalacturonase production and selected 16 strains through preliminary screening by well-plate method for enzyme activity. The maximum zone of inhibition of pectin was observed up to 28 mm in diameter but one strain ZM11 was exhibiting no activity. Quantitative dinitrisalicylic acid (DNS) assay for polygalacturonase enzyme was also performed for the selected bacterial isolates. All the strains bestowed significant enzyme activity with the highest activity of 2.4 U/µL exhibited by strain ZM3 (P ≤0.05). Characterization of the isolates was performed using different biochemical tests which also confirmed the isolates as members of the genus Bacillus. Mutation was induced to the selected strains by UV light and acridine orange for different periods of time. Qualitative and quantitative assays of the mutant bacterial isolates showed that the enzyme activity increased to 4.62 U/µL which clearly indicated that induced mutation enhanced the ability of Bacillus strains to produce more polygalacturonase enzyme up to 3-fold as compared to the wild strains (P ≤0.05). Molecular characterization by 16S rRNA sequences further confirmed that the bacterial isolates belong to Bacillus subtilis and B. amyloliquefaciens.

Determinación del contenido extra e intracelular de algunas enzimas líticas relacionadas con pared celular en raíces de clavel (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) / Determination of extra and intracellular lytic enzymes related with carnation (Dianthuscaryophyllus L.) root cell wall / Determinação do conteúdo extra e intracelular de algumas enzimas líticas relacionadas com a parede celular em raízes de cravo (Dianthus caryophyllus L.)

En el presente trabajo se verificó la presencia de algunas enzimas relacionadas con la pared celular vegetal (poligalacturonasa, pectato liasa, proteasa y xilanasa) en raíces de clavel (Dianthus caryophyllus L.). Así mismo, se determinaron los niveles de actividad de las mismas. Estos niveles se analizaron en diferentes espacios celulares: en el fluido intercelular que hace parte del apoplasto, en el simplasto y en el tejido total de las raíces de clavel (apoplasto y simplasto). Para extraer el fluido intercelular, se ensayaron dos metodologías. Para obtener el contenido intracelular (simplasto) y el extracto total (apoplasto y simplasto) en raíces de clavel se ensayaron tres metodologías que utilizaban como solución i) extractante buffer fosfato, ii) buffer fosfato con PVPP y iii) lavados con acetona a las raíces de clavel, antes de la extracción con buffer fosfatos. Los resultados mostraron el efecto de las diferentes soluciones en las actividades enzimáticas y en el contenido de proteína. Se propuso una de estas metodologías para extraer las cuatro enzimas en un único paso y realizar análisis comparativo de actividad enzimática.

The presence of some enzymes related to cell wall (polygalacturonase, the pectate lyase, protease and xylanase) in carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) roots as well as the activity levels were determined. These levels were analyzed in different cellular places: the intercellular fluid that is part of the apoplast, the symplast, and the total level (apoplast and symplast) in carnation roots. Two methods were tested to extract the intercellular fluid. To obtain the intracellular content (symplast) and total extract (apoplast+symplast), three methods were tested, using as extracting solution i) phosphate buffer, ii) phosphate buffer + PVPP, iii) before the extraction with phosphate buffer, the carnation roots were washed with acetone. The results showed the effect of different extracting solutions in the enzymatic activities and in the protein content. A new only one step method is proposed to extract the four enzymes and make the comparative analysis of enzymatic activity.

No presente trabalho foi evidenciada a presença de algumas enzimas relacionadas com a parede celular vegetal: poligalacturonasa, pectato liasa, proteasa e xilanasa e se determinaram seus níveis de atividade, em raízes de cravo (Dianthus caryophyllus L.). Os níveis se analisaram em diferentes espaços celulares: no fluido intercelular que faz parte do apoplasto, no simplasto e no tecido total das raízes de cravo (apoplasto e simplasto). Foram avaliadas duas metodologias para extrair o fluido intercelular. Para obter o conteúdo intracelular (simplasto) e o extrato total (apoplasto e simplasto) se avaliaram três metodologias que utilizavam como solução extratora i) buffer fosfato, ii) buffer fosfato com PVPP e iii) lavados com acetona às raízes de cravo, antes da extração com buffer fosfato. Os resultados mostraram o efeito das diferentes soluciones nas atividades enzimáticas e no conteúdo de proteína. Se propõem uma de estas metodologias para extrair as quatro enzimas num único passo e realizar a analise comparativa da atividade enzimática.

Cloning and expression analysis of polygalacturonase-inhibiting protein gene from Panax notoginseng / 中草药

Objective: To clone the full-length cDNA sequence of PnPGIP gene encoding polygalacturonase-inhibiting protein (PGIP) from Panax notoginseng and analyze the expression levels of PnPGIP. Methods: Based on P. notoginseng expressed sequence tag (EST) encoding PGIP, specific primers were designed and the full-length cDNA of EST was cloned with the method of rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE). The expression levels of PnPGIP were analyzed by qRT-PCR. Results: The full-length cDNA of PnPGIP was 1 171 bp and contained an intact open reading frame (ORF) of 981 bp, a 13 bp 5'-untranslated region (UTR), and a 177 bp 3'-UTR. The deduced amino acid sequence of PnPGIP has 326 amino acid residues which form a 36 770 polypeptide with a calculated pI of 5.83. qRT-PCR analysis indicated that the expression of PnPGIP was quickly induced after inoculation with Fusarium solani and Alternaria panax, and the highest transcription level was achieved at 4 h and 2 h post inoculation, respectively. Moreover, the expression of PnPGIP was induced in different degrees by methyl jasmonate (MeJA), ethylene (ETH), H2O2, and salicylic acid (SA). Conclusion: PnPGIP responds to F. solani and A. panax infection in the transcription level, and it is induced by several kinds of adversity stresses related signaling molecules. Therefore, PnPGIP may be involved in defense response of P. notoginseng against F. solani and A. panax.

Cultivo por lote de Wickerhamomyces anomaìus en un biorreactor a escala laboratorio para la producción de una poligalacturonasa / Batch culture of Wickerhamomyces anomaìus in a lab scale bioreactor for poligalacturonase production

Wickerhamomyces anomalus, una levadura aislada de frutas cítricas en la provincia de Misiones, Argentina, produce una poligalacturonasa (endo-PG) con capacidad macerante de tejidos vegetales. El objetivo del presente trabajo fue determinai los parámetros cinéticos y estequiométricos del crecimiento de W. anomalus y la producción de la enzima poligalacturonasa en un medio de cultivo sintético, operado en sistema por lote, en un biorreactor a escala laboratorio. Los cultivos se realizaron en un biorreactor de 4 l que contenía 3 l de un medio sintético compuesto por glucosa, pectina de citrus, vitaminas, aminoácidos, sulfato de amonio y sales, y se incubaron con agitación y aireación, a 30 °C durante 12 h. El transcurso de proceso fermentativo se siguió por medidas de biomasa, glucosa residual, actividad poligalacturonasa y contenido de O2 y CO2 de los gases a la salida del reactor. La velocidad específica de crecimiento máxima (-im) de W. anomalus fue de 0,337 h-1 y el rendimiento de biomasa producida (Yx/s) de 0,401 gx/gs. Al finalizar el cultivo, la actividad PG en el sobrenadante fue de PG de ~ 83,7 UE/ml. La actividad específica y la productividad obtenidas fueron de ~ 1,91. 10(4) UE/gx y ~ 9.301 UE/l.h, respectivamente. El cociente respiratorio fue cercano a 1 durante el proceso fermentativo. No se formó ningún otro producto, además de biomasa y CO 2 . El cultivo por lote resultó ser una buena alternativa para la producción de PG a partir de W. anomalus, obteniéndose un extracto con elevada actividad enzimática, en un medio de cultivo sintético y de bajo costo.

Wickerhamomyces anomalus, a yeast isolated from citrus fruit peels in the province of Misiones, Argentina, produces a polygalacturonase (endo-PG) with maceration activity of vegetable tissues. The objective of the present work was to determine kinetic and stoichiometric parameters of W. anomalus growth and polygalacturonase production in a synthetic culture medium, operating in a batch-type bioreactor at laboratory scale. Cultures were performed in a bioreactor of 4 l, containing 3 l of a synthetic medium composed of glucose, citrus pectin, vitamins, amino acids, ammonium sulfate and salts, and were incubated with agitation (450 rpm) and aeration at 30 °C, during 12 h. The course of the fermentation process was followed by measuring biomass, residual glucose, polygalacturonase activity and O2 and CO2 content of outlet gases from the reactor. The maximum specific growth rate (Um) of W. anomalus was 0.337 h-1 and the biomass yield (Yx/s) was 0.40 gx/gs. At the end of the culture, PG activity in the supernatant was ~84 UE/ml. The specific activity and the productivity obtained were ~1.91 104 UE/gx and ~9,301 UE/l.h, respectively. Respiratory quotient was approximately 1.0 throughout the fermentation process. No other product different from biomass and CO2 was detected. Batch culture could be an adequate alternative for the production of polygalacturonase from W. anomalus and an extract with high enzymatic activity using a synthetic and economic culture medium could be obtained.

Purification and Characterization of a Polygalacturonase Produced by Wickerhamomyces anomalus

The aim of this work was to study the purification and physicochemical properties of an endo-polygalacturonase (PG) produced by Wickerhamomyces anomalus isolated from the citrus fruit peels. The enzyme was purified to homogeneity from the culture filtrate of W. anomalus grown on the yeast nitrogen base medium with glucose as carbon and energy source and citrus pectin as inductor. After anion-exchange chromatography and gel filtration chromatography, PG activity was eluted as a single peak, yielding 21% of the original activity. After dialysis and cation-exchange chromatography, only one fraction with PG activity was obtained, recovering 56% of initial enzyme activity and 1.3-fold increase in specific activity. The molecular weight of the enzyme was estimated as 43 kDa by the SDS-PAGE. The enzyme exhibited maximal activity at pH 4.2 and was stable over a pH range from 3.5 to 6.0 and up to 49ºC for 10 h. The Vmax and Km values with polygalacturonic acid as substrate were 0.26 mmol/L.min and 0.173 mg/mL, respectively. Cations such as Cu+2, Fe+3, Mg+2, Mn+2 and Zn+2 did not show any significant effect on PG activity but K+ and Ca+2 reduced it. The purified PG was able to macerate cassava tissues.

Application of decolourized and partially purified polygalacturonase and α-amylase in apple juice clarification

Polygalacturonase and α-amylase play vital role in fruit juice industry. In the present study, polygalacturonase was produced by Aspergillus awamori Nakazawa MTCC 6652 utilizing apple pomace and mosambi orange (Citrus sinensis var mosambi) peels as solid substrate whereas, α-amylase was produced from A. oryzae (IFO-30103) using wheat bran by solid state fermentation (SSF) process. These carbohydrases were decolourized and purified 8.6-fold, 34.8-fold and 3.5-fold, respectively by activated charcoal powder in a single step with 65.1%, 69.8% and 60% recoveries, respectively. Apple juice was clarified by these decolourized and partially purified enzymes. In presence of 1% polygalacturonase from mosambi peels (9.87 U/mL) and 0.4% α-amylase (899 U/mL), maximum clarity (%T660nm = 97.0%) of juice was attained after 2 h of incubation at 50 ºC in presence of 10 mM CaCl2. Total phenolic content of juice was reduced by 19.8% after clarification, yet with slightly higher %DPPH radical scavenging property.

Purification, Characterization and Application of Polygalacturonase from Aspergillus niger CSTRF

Aims: The research was carried out to study the purification, characterization and application of polygalacturonase from Aspergillus niger CSTRF. Methodology and Results: The polygalacturonase (PG) from the fungus was purified by ammonium sulphate precipitation and dialysed. The resulting fraction of the enzyme was further separated by molecular exclusion and ion exchange chromatography. The enzyme was purified 28.19 fold with a yield of approximately 69 % following purification with SP C-50. It has a relative molecular weight of 79,430 daltons and markedly influenced by temperature, pH and substrate concentrations of reactions with optimum activity at 35 °C, pH 4.0 and 8 mg/mL respectively. The PG was heat stable over a broad range of temperatures. Line weaver-Burk plot for the apparent hydrolysis of pectin showed approximately Km value of 2.7 mg/mL. The activity of the enzyme was enhanced by Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+ and Zn2+, while EDTA, PbCl2, HgCl2 and IAA were inhibitory. The ability of the purified enzyme to clarify fruit juice was also investigated. Conclusion, significance and impact of the study: This study revealed that polygalacturonase possesses properties for clarification of fruit juice and by extension bioprocessing applications.

EXTRACCIÓN DE ENZIMAS PÉCTICAS DEL EPICARPIO DE LULO (Solanum quitoense Lam) INVOLUCRADAS EN EL PROCESO DE ABLANDAMIENTO / Exytraction of Pectic Enzymes from of Lulo(Solanum quitoense Lam) Involved in Softening

Durante el periodo de poscosecha el principal problema de deterioro del lulo (Solanum quitoense Lam) es el ablandamiento que es generado principalmente por actividad de enzimas pécticas que atacan la red estructural de la pared celular. Esta investigación se basó en la búsqueda de las mejores condiciones de extracción y medida de actividad de las enzimas pectinesterasa, poligalacturonasa y pectato liasa; herramientas necesarias para estudiar posteriormente el rol de estas enzimas en el deterioro por ablandamiento sufrido por el fruto debido a diversos cambios metabólicos. Se encontró que las dos primeras enzimas pueden ser extraídas simultáneamente con buffer fosfatos 20 mM pH 7,0 + NaCl 0,06 M y 60 min de extracción, relación 1:2 (material vegetal: buffer de extracción), a su vez, pectato liasa se extrajo con buffer fosfatos 20 mM pH 7,0 + cisteína 20 mM y 30 min de extracción, relación 1:3. Para la cuantificación de la actividad pectinesterasa es necesario incubar 15 min a 42 °C 2.500 µL de extracto enzimático crudo (EE) en buffer fosfatos 20 mM pH 7,0 + NaCl 0,15 M y 1,6% de pectina cítrica como sustrato, con valores de Km aparente de 3,78% de PC y Vmax 17,95 µmolH+/min*mg prot. Para la cuantificación de la actividad poligalacturonasa es necesario incubar 15 min a 37 °C 30 µL (EE) en buffer acetatos 200 mM pH 4,5 + NaCl 0,25 M y 1,0% de APG como sustrato, con valores de Km aparente 0,141% de APG y Vmax 28,46 nKat/s*mg prot. Para la cuantificación de la actividad pectato liasa es necesario incubar 2 min a 17 °C 100 µL (EE) en buffer TRIS:HCl 50 Mm pH 8,5 + CaCl2 4 mM y 0,1% de APG como sustrato, con valores de Km aparente 0,0865% de APG y Vmax 82,75 µg/s*mg prot.

The main problem of post-harvest deterioration of lulo (Solanum quitoense Lam) is the softening is the main problem of post-harvest deteriorarion of Lulo, that is generated mainly by the activity of pectic enzymes, which attack the structural network of the cell wall. This research was based on finding the best conditions structural cell wall network for extraction and measurement of enzyme activity pectinesterase (PE), polygalacturonase (PG) and pectato liasa (PL); tools needed to study the further role of these enzymes in the deterioration of pectatelyase fruit softening, due to various metabolic changes. It was found that the first two enzymes can be extracted simultaneously with 20 mM phosphate buffer pH 7.0, 0.06 M NaCl and 60 minutes of extraction, ratio 1:2 (plant material: extraction buffer), pectatelyase extracted with 20 mM phosphate buffer pH 7.0, 20 mM cysteine and 30 minutes of extraction, ratio 1:3. For quantification of pectinesterase activity is necessary to incubate 15 minutes at 42 ° C, 2500 µL of crude enzyme extract (EE) in 20 mM phosphate buffer pH 7.0, to 0.15 M NaCl and 1.6% citrus pectin as (CP) substrate with apparent Km values of 3.78% CP and Vmax 17.95 mol H+/min * mg prot. For the quantification of pectinesterase activity is necessary to incubate 15 minutes to 42 °C 2500 µL of crude enzyme extract (EE) in 20 mM phosphate buffer pH 7.0, 0.15 M NaCl and 1.6% citrus pectin as substrate with apparent Km values of 3.78% CP and 17.95 µ Vmax mol H+/min*mg prot. For the quantification of polygalacturonase activity is necessary to incubate 15 minutes to 37 °C 30 µL (EE) in 200 mM Acetate buffer pH 4.5, 0.25 M NaCl and 1.0% of APG as substrate, with apparent Km values 0.141% of APG and Vmax 28.46 nKat/s*mg prot. For the quantification of the pectatelyase activity is necessary to incubate 2 minutes to 17 °C, 100 µL (EE) in buffer TRIS: HCl pH 8.5, 50 mM 4 mM CaCl2 and 0.1% PGA as substrate, with apparent Km values 0.0865% of APG and Vmax 82.75 µg/s*mg prot.

Screening and optimization of pectin lyase and polygalacturonase activity from ginseng pathogen Cylindrocarpon Destructans

Cylindrocarpon destructans isolated from ginseng field was found to produce pectinolytic enzymes. A Taguchi's orthogonal array experimental design was applied to optimize the preliminary production of polygalacturonase (PG) and pectin lyase (PL) using submerged culture condition. This method was applied to evaluate the significant parameters for the production of enzymes. The process variables were pH, pectin concentration, incubation time and temperature. Optimization of process parameters resulted in high levels of enzyme (PG and PL) production after ten days of incubation at a pH of 5.0 at 25°C in the presence of 1.5 percent pectin. Among different nitrogen sources, urea and peptone showed high production of PG and PL, respectively. The enzyme production and mycelial growth seems to have direct influence on the culture conditions; therefore, at stationary state high enzyme production and mycelial growth were obtained than agitation state. Along with this, optimization of enzyme activity was also determined using various physiological parameters like, temperature, incubation time and pH. Taguchi's data was also analyzed using one step ANOVA statistical method.

Production and characterization of endo-polygalacturonase from Aspergillus niger in solid-state fermentation in double-surface bioreactor

Endo-polygalacturonase (endo-PG) production by Aspergillus niger T0005/007-2 in solid medium with 170 mm of height was evaluated in a cylindrical double surface bioreactor in 96-h experiments. Cell concentration close to 92 mg.g -¹ dm (mg per g of dry medium) in the standard condition (static) was achieved, whereas in tests under forced aeration of 1.4 and 2.8 L.min-1. Kg-1 mm (L of air per minute per Kg of moist medium) and with the central shaft fungal biomass attained approximately 100 mg.g-1 dm. Superior endo-PG activity was obtained with the central-shaft system, 78 U.g-1 dm (units per g of dry medium). Forced aeration and pressure pulse showed no positive effect on the production of endo-PG, 45 U.g-1 dm and 28 U.g-1 dm, respectively. None of the conditions evaluated was efficient for medium temperature control. Endo-PG was stable up to 40ºC. The activity decreased in 50 percent after 120 minutes at 50ºC, which is a temperature normally found during this process.

Biotechnological potential of alternative carbon sources for production of pectinases by Rhizopus microsporus var. rhizopodiformis

Fungi collected from Brazilian soil and decomposing plants were screened for pectinase production. R. microsporus var. rhizopodiformis was the best producer and was selected to evaluate the pectic enzyme production under several nutritional and environmental conditions. The pectinase production was studied at 40ºC, under 28 carbon sources-supplemented medium. The inducer effect of several agro-industrial residues such as sugar cane bagasse, wheat flour and corncob on polygalacturonase (PG) activity was 4-, 3- and 2-fold higher than the control (pectin). In glucose-medium, a constitutive pectin lyase (PL) activity was detected. The results demonstrated that R. microsporus produced high levels of PG (57.7 U/mg) and PL (88.6 U/mg) in lemon peel-medium. PG had optimum temperature at 65 ºC and was totally stable at 55 ºC for 90 min. Half-life at 70 ºC was 68 min. These results suggested that the versatility of waste carbon sources utilization by R. microsporus, produce pectic enzymes, which could be useful to reduce production costs and environmental impacts related to the waste disposal.

Effect of carbon and nitrogen sources on polygalacturonase production by Trichoderma viride (BITRS-1001) isolated from tar sand in Ondo State, Nigeria

The effects of the various carbon and nitrogen substrates on the growth and polygalacturonase activity of Trichoderma viride (BITRS-1001) isolated from the tar sand deposit in Gbelejuloda-Irele Ondo State, Nigeria were investigated in submerged cultivation at 30 °C ± 2 °C. The commercial carbon and nitrogen substrates included sucrose, fructose, starch, maltose, lactose and peptone, sodium nitrate, urea and casein respectively. All the carbon substrates used supported the growth of T. viride (0.566 to 0.156 g/50 mL of culture medium) with starch supporting the highest biomass yield and sucrose the least biomass yield. Maximum polygalacturonase activity of 3033 U/mL was recorded in maltose medium. Maximum biomass yield on the nitrogen sources was observed in the organic nitrogen namely peptone and casein with values not significantly different from each other at p ≤ 0.05. In the determination of the crude enzyme activity on the nitrogen sources, maximum polygalacturonase activity of 12,400 U/mL was recorded in peptone medium. Hence, a careful manipulation of these nutrient substrates could help to optimise the production of this enzyme on a large scale.

Polygalacturonase inhibitor protein from fruits of anthracnose resistant and susceptible varieties of Chilli (Capsicum annuum L).

Chilli fruit is highly susceptible to anthracnose infection at the stage of harvest maturity, due to which the fruit yield in the leading commercial variety Byadgi is severely affected. Field studies on screening of several varieties for resistance to anthracnose have shown that a variety of chilli AR-4/99K is resistant to anthracnose infection. In many crops, resistance to fungal attack has been correlated with PGIP activity in developing fruits based on which transgenic varieties have been developed with resistance to fungi. The present study was carried out to determine whether anthracnose resistance in AR-4/99K was due to the increased levels of PGIP alone and/ or due to differences, if any, in the properties of PGIP. Hence, a comparative study of the properties of polygalacturonase inhibitor protein (PGIP) isolated from fruits of anthracnose resistant chilli var AR-4/99K and a susceptible variety Byadgi was conducted with the objective of utilizing the information in genetic transformation studies. Both the PGIPs from anthracnose resistant and susceptible varieties of chilli exhibited similarities in the elution pattern on Sephadex gel, DEAE cellulose, PAGE and SDS-PAGE. The two PGIPs were active over a wide range of pH and temperature. Both PGIPs showed differential inhibitory activity against polygalacturonase (PG) secreted by Colletotrichum gleosporoides, C. capsici, C. lindemuthianum, Fusarium moniliforme and Sclerotium rolfsii. The inhibitory activity of PGIP from both resistant and susceptible varieties was the highest (82% and 76%, respectively) against the PG from Colletotrichum capsici, a pathogen causing anthracnose rot of chilli, while the activity was lower (1.27 to 12.3%) on the other fungal PGs. Although PGIP activity decreased with fruit maturation in both the varieties, the resistant variety maintained a higher activity at 45 days after flowering (DAF) as compared to the susceptible variety which helped it to overcome the infection by anthracnose as against the susceptible variety (Byadgi) in which PGIP activity was drastically reduced at maturity. The molecular mass of PGIP as determined by SDS-PAGE was found to be 37 kDa. N-terminal sequence analysis of the PGIP showed the first six amino acid residues from N-terminal end were Asp-Thr-His-Lys-Ser-Glu (DTHKSE), respectively. The similarities in properties of the two PGIPs support the earlier findings that resistance of AR-4/99K to anthracnose fungus is a result of its higher PGIP activity at maturity.

Extraction and characterization of polygalacturonase of Fomes sclerodermeus produced by solid-state fermentation / Extracción y caracterización de poligaracturonasa de Fomes sclerodermeus producida por fermentación en estado sólido

Polygalacturonase (PG) production by Fomes sclerodermeus using solid-state fermentation (SSF) was carried out. Maximal PG activity (26 U/gdw) was obtained between days 11 and 13 at the end of exponential growth. PG activity in the crude extract was more stable at pH 5-6 and 30 °C and had optimum activity at pH 5 and 50 °C. Optimal conditions for PG extraction were: one time extraction with Na2SO4 as solvent with 10 min. of agitation. In a scale-up system, PG activity per gram of dry substrate decreased about 60% compared with the activity obtained in an Erlenmeyer flask; however, high total PG activity was obtained.

Se estudió la producción de poligalacturonasa (PG) por Fomes sclerodermeus usando técnicas de fermentación en estado sólido. La actividad PG máxima (26 U/g ps) fue observada entre los días 11 y 13. La actividad PG en los extractos crudos fue más estable a pH 5-6 y 30 °C, con una actividad óptima a pH 5 y a 50 °C. Las condiciones óptimas para la extracción de PG se lograron con una única extracción empleando Na2SO4 como solvente, con 10 minutos de agitación. En el escalado del sistema, la actividad PG por gramo de peso seco de sustrato disminuyó cerca de 60% comparada con la obtenida en frascos Erlenmeyer, pero la actividad total fue mayor.

Exo-polygalacturonase production by Bacillus subtilis CM5 in solid state fermentation using cassava bagasse / Produção de exo-poligalacturonase por Bacillus subtilis CM5 por fermentação em estado sólido empregando bagaço de mandioca

The purpose of this investigation was to study the effect of Bacillus subtilis CM5 in solid state fermentation using cassava bagasse for production of Exo-polygalacturonase (exo-PG). Response surface methodology was used to evaluate the effect of four main variables, i.e. incubation period, initial medium pH, moisture holding capacity (MHC) and incubation temperature on enzyme production. A full factorial Central Composite Design was applied to study these main factors that affected exo-PG production. The experimental results showed that the optimum incubation period, pH, MHC and temperature were 6 days, 7.0, 70 percent and 50ºC, respectively for optimum exo-PG production.

O objetivo desta investigação foi estudar a produção de exo-poligalacturonase (exo-PG) por Bacillus subtilis CM5 por fermentação em estado sólido empregando bagaço de mandioca. Empregou-se a metodologia de superfície de resposta para avaliar o efeito de quatro variáveis na produção da enzima: período de incubação, pH inicial do meio, MHC e temperatura de incubação. Os resultados experimentais mostraram que os ótimos de temperatura, período de incubação, MHC e temperatura para produção de exo-PG foram seis dias, 7,0, 70 por cento e 50ºC, respectivamente.

Production of pectinases by A. niger: influence of fermentation conditions

Response surface methodology was used for optimization of polygalacturonase (PG) and pectinesterase (PE) production in submerged fermentation by A.niger. A Central Composite Experimental Design was applied, consisting of 22 experiments, including eight central points. Variables studied were: fermentation time (24 to 120 h), pH (3.5 to 6.5) and initial concentration of pectin (5 to 20 g/l). Maximum PE production was 220 U/l, after 74 h of culture, in a medium containing 20 g/l of pectin (pH 6.5). The optimal conditions for PG production were pH: 4.1, 20 g/l of pectin and 94 h of fermentation with a maximum value of 1032 U/l. Under these conditions, the PE production was low (15 U/l). A liquid extract with high PG activity and low PE activity could be suitable to be used in food processing in order to reduce the production of methanol.

A metodologia de superfície de resposta foi utilizada para a otimização da produção de poligalacturonasa (PG) e pectinesterasa (PE), por A. niger em fermentação submergida. Foi aplicado um Desenho Experimental Composto Central abrangendo 22 experiências, incluindo oito pontos centrais. As variáveis estudadas foram: tempo de fermentação (24 a 120 h), pH (3.5 a 6.5) e concentração inicial de pectina (5 a 20 g/l). A produção máxima de PE foi de 220 U/l, após 74h de cultivo, 20 g/l de pectina e pH 6.5. As condições ótimas para a produção de PG foram pH 4.1, 20 g/l de pectina e 94 h de fermentação, com um valor máximo de 1032 U/l. Sob estas condições, a produção de PE foi baixa (15 U/l). Um extrato líquido com alta atividade PG e baixa atividade PE poderia ser conveniente para ser utilizado no processamento e alimentos, visando reduzir a produção de metanol.