Adicción al tabaco y adolescencia: riesgos psicobiológicos / Psychobiological risks of tobacco during adolescence. A narrative review

Resumen La investigación moderna, tanto en humanos como preclínica, que utiliza modelos animales indica que fumar durante la edad adolescente resulta en cambios cerebrales y psicológicos a corto y largo plazo en el fumador, así como en un aumento significativo en los riesgos de desarrollar adicción al tabaco durante la vida. Por lo tanto, en la presente revisión narrativa se describirán y profundizarán los hallazgos investigativos modernos de la psicobiología de la adolescencia y los efectos del tabaco en el desarrollo, con un énfasis particular en la comprensión de los efectos psicológicos y cerebrales del consumo de tabaco durante la adolescencia, tanto a corto como a largo plazo. Se considerarán de manera detallada los avances investigativos sobre la psicobiología de la adolescencia y sus riesgos en las adicciones desde los aspectos: conductual, cognitivo, reactividad al estrés y psicobiología. Sobre esta base, se revisará la investigación sobre la psicobiología de la adolescencia y la evidencia de vulnerabilidad a la adicción durante esta etapa. Al final, se abordarán los efectos del tabaco en el cerebro y conducta durante el desarrollo adolescente y vida posterior, ya que se ha encontrado evidencia relacionada con alteraciones cerebrales crónicas en los sistemas colinérgicos y regiones cerebrales asociadas con la dependencia de la nicotina. Se espera que la revisión y divulgación de esta información en el idioma español sea de valor para la comprensión de los problemas de vulnerabilidad y predisposiciones a la adicción al tabaco en el contexto de Latinoamérica.

Abstract Tobacco use and its harmful health-related problems have become one of the largest modern preventable public health issues. Current research strongly suggests that smoking during adolescence enhances addictive smoking behaviors during life, which can be related to adolescence as a critical ontogenetic period characterized by behaviors that can increase the probability of risk-related behaviors such as sensation and novelty seeking. Adolescent development is also a period of maturation of frontal and subcortical neural systems, brain changes that underlie higher impulsivity tendencies to promote adequate learning and adaptations necessary to succeed the novel challenges of the adult life, but those changes also enhance vulnerabilities to the addictive effects of drugs. Consistent with this, tobacco use affects brain development processes which underlie long-term psychobiological alterations and the enhanced risks for tobacco addiction during adult life. Thus, the present review describes current psychobiological approaches to understand general addiction processes and tobacco addiction, highlighting the behavioral and neural short-term effects of tobacco use during adolescence and its long-term effects during adulthood. Current research has advanced on four aspects for the understanding of both the psychobiology of adolescent development and the effects of drugs of abuse during this time. The first aspect is behavioral, as adolescence is related to important changes on motivational and emotional behaviors such as sensation seeking. Other important behavioral changes are social approach, a higher variety of opportunity for personal choices, and development of personal independence. Research on a second aspect has focused on cognition. A review of research is presented showing enhanced abilities during adolescence development for reading, abstract and logical thinking, and novel problem solving. Stress reactivity is the third aspect of reviewed psychobiological mechanisms. The stress biological system undergoes important changes during adolescence, including changes on stress-related hormones and neural architecture. An important issue is that exposure to early and/or chronic stressful circumstances during adolescence could be related to higher risk to the start and maintenance of addiction states, as suggested by research assessing the disruptive effects of stress on psychobiological homeostatic processes needed to maintain stable biological and emotional regulation. The fourth aspect is psychobiology. In this section research is reviewed related to the development of monoaminergic brain circuits underlying motivation, novelty-seeking, impulsivity, and addiction processes. Using as model the previous review integration, the effects of nicotine are discussed, the essential addictive component of tobacco, on the neurochemical systems underlying tobacco addiction. Following this, important research is introduced that describes psychobiological changes during adolescence and evidence of vulnerability to addiction during this life stage. Then, current research on both short-term and long-term effects of tobacco or nicotine administration during adolescence on the brain, behavior, and cognition is introduced. The current research advances and discussions on the psychobiology of addictions in general, and tobacco addiction in particular, have been possible to a large extent from the use of animal models and preclinical research, since animal models have become crucial to identify learning, motivational, emotional, and cognitive mechanisms that underlie addictive processes, and making possible to perform experimental procedures to discover the functioning and participation of biological components. One example of such components is the cholinergic system, which is activated by nicotine and is part of the neurochemical machinery on different brain areas important for both tobacco addiction and adolescence development such as the dorsal striatum, amygdala, ventral tegmental area, nucleus accumbens, prefrontal cortex, and hippocampus. The present review and research divulgation written in Spanish are expected to clarify modern research on addiction and encourage current scientific education on the vulnerabilities and predispositions for tobacco abuse in Latin-American countries.

¿Existe una relación entre la esquizofrenia y la violencia y los homicidios? / Is there a relationship between schizophrenia and violence and homicides?

La cultura popular ha empleado la esquizofrenia y otras enfermedades mentales como un recurso narrativo útil. Sin embargo, esto puede llegar a estigmatizar a las personas que las padecen, creando una imagen errónea. Por ejemplo, la película Joker (2019) puede malinterpretarse y concluir que las personas con esquizofrenia son potenciales homicidas. Es por ello por lo que debemos prestar atención a las conclusiones de la comunidad científica respecto a la relación de la esquizofrenia con la violencia y los homicidios. En este sentido, las evidencias científicas con las que contamos hasta el momento no nos permiten asumir que la esquizofrenia sea la causa principal de la violencia y, mucho menos, del homicidio. De hecho, son necesarias más variables, no directamente relacionas con la enfermedad, como el consumo de drogas, la psicopatía o el maltrato durante la infancia para que exista una relación entre este enfermedad y la violencia o el homicidio.

Pop culture has used schizophrenia and other mental illnesses as a helpful narrative resource. However, this can stigmatize people who suffer from these illnesses, creating a distorted image. For example, the movie Joker (2019) can be misinterpreted and conclude that people with schizophrenia are potential murderers. Thus, We must pay attention to the findings of the scientific community about schizophrenia's relationship with violence and homicides. In this regard, we cannot conclude that schizophrenia is the leading cause of violence and much less homicide. Other variables are necessary that are not directly related to the disease, such as drug use, psycho-pathy, or childhood abuse, for there to be a relationship between schizophrenia and violence or homicide.

Navegación espacial en niños en un laberinto circular: la interacción entre diferentes marcos geométricos de referencia / Spatial Navigation in Children in a Circular Maze: he Interaction between different frames of reference

Diversas teorías intentan explicar las estrategias de navegación que utilizan los niños menores de 6 años, siendo el uso de la geometría el principal tema de debate. El objetivo del estudio fue estudiar los sistemas de navegación espacial en niños de 3 y 6 años y su utilización de diversos marcos de referencia geométricos y de la guía proximal. Los niños emplearán la geometría como predice la teoría de la combinación adaptativa. Dos grupos de 20 niños de 6 y 3 años, respectivamente. Se utilizó un laberinto circular donde los niños tenían que buscar un objeto escondido. Se formaron dos grupos: desorientados respecto a la habitación exterior y no desorientados. Los niños de 3 años necesitaron la información geométrica de la habitación exterior, los de 6 años también son capaces de emplear la guía proximal y pueden usar la geometría del recinto experimental si su aprendizaje se ha realizado en presencia de la geometría de la habitación. Los resultados apoyan la teoría de la combinación adaptativa, en lugar de la de módulos geométricos. Por otro lado, la presencia de marcos de referencia geométricos fiables facilita la utilización de otros tipos de claves que en su ausencia no son empleadas.

Various theories attempt to explain the strategies of navigation used by children under 6 years old, principle amongst which is the use of geometry. The aim of this study was the spatial orientation applied by 3 and 6-year-old children and their use of different geometric frames of reference and the proximal guide. Children use geometry as the theory of the adaptive combination predicts. 20 six-year-old children and 20 three-year-old children. The experimental study used a circular maze in which the children had to find a hidden object. The children were split into two groups: those who were disoriented with respect to the outer room, and those who were not disoriented. The 3-year-old children need the geometric information of the outer room, the 6-year-old are also able to use the proximal guide and can use the geometry of the experimental enclosure when their learning has made available the geometry of the room. The results support the theory of adaptive combination, rather than the geometric modules. Furthermore, the presence of reliable geometric frames of reference facilitates the use of other types of keys that are not used in their absence.

Temperamento y Carácter en Practicantes Mexicanos de Haidong Gumdo (Espada Coreana): Una Perspectiva Psicobiológica de la Personalidad / Temperament and Character in Mexican practitioners of Haidong Gumdo (Korean Sword): A Psychobiological Perspective on Personality

Resumen: Las artes marciales son una práctica común por las virtudes fisiológicas y psicobiológicas que poseen. El Haidong Gumdo es un arte marcial Coreana que se especializa en el uso de espadas y su técnica se basa en técnicas de combate. Los estudios de personalidad en las artes marciales son limitados con el modelo psicobiológico de Cloninger que incluye al temperamento el cual es heredable, independiente, homogéneo genéticamente y estable a través del tiempo y al carácter que indica diferencias individuales afectadas por factores sociales, aprendizaje y procesos de maduración. Se describen las diferencias en las dimensiones personalidad en practicantes mexicanos de Haidong Gumdo y personas sedentarias. Treinta Arte marcialistas y 28 controles fueron evaluados con el inventario de temperamento y carácter de Cloninger. Resultaron diferencias significativas entre el grupo de Haidong Gumdo y los controles en todas las subdimensiones de personalidad. En conclusión el practicante de Haidong Gumdo presenta un perfil característico vinculado con la filosofía- técnica aprendida, se apoya en el modelo psicobiológico de la personalidad de Cloninger que se fundamenta en evidencia genética y neuroanatómica, donde el temperamento es estable y constante mientras que el carácter cambia por las experiencias y es influenciado por factores ambientales y genéticos.

Abstract: Martial arts are a common practice by physiological and psychobiological virtues they possess. The Haidong Gumdo is a Korean martial art that specializes in the use of swords and technique is based on combat techniques. Studies of personality in martial arts are limited to the psychobiological model of Cloninger which includes the temperament which is heritable, independent, genetically homogeneous and stable over time and the character indicating individual differences affected by social, learning and processes maturation. Differences in personality dimensions Haidong Gumdo Mexican practitioners and sedentary people are described. Thirty martial artists and 28 controls were evaluated with inventory Cloninger temperament and character. There were significant differences between the group of Haidong Gumdo and controls in all sub-dimensions of personality. In conclusion Haidong Gumdo practitioner has a characteristic profile linked to technical philosophy-learned, rests on the psychobiological model of Cloninger's personality which is based on genetic and neuroanatomical evidence where temperament is stable and constant while the character changed by the experiences and is influenced by environmental and genetic factors.

Mecanismos psicobiológicos y del desarrollo de la reactividad al estrés en roedores y Humanos / Psychobiological and developmental mechanisms for stress reactivity in rodents and humans

La investigación con modelos animales ha tenido un avance importante sobre el conocimiento de los mecanismos psicobiológicos que subyacen a las diferencias individuales que existen con referencia a la reactividad al estrés. La investigación animal también ha ayudado en la comprensión de los correlatos psicobiológicos de la reactividad al estrés en humanos, al sugerir mecanismos neuroquímicos particulares para la investigación y al producir modelos generales de funcionamiento psicológico aplicables en humanos. En este artículo se describen los elementos neuroquímicos básicos de la reactividad al estrés. Adicionalmente, se utiliza el modelo de epigénesis probabilística para incluir los elementos del desarrollo y genéticos que proveen el contexto necesario para la comprensión de las diferencias individuales en la reactividad al estrés. Finalmente, se describen algunos resultados y potenciales avances en la investigación de la psicobiología del trastorno de estrés postraumático en términos de los conceptos que han surgido desde la investigación animal.

Important research advances on the psychobiological mechanisms underlying individual differences for stress reactivity have resulted from research in animal models. Animal research has also shed light on the psychobiological correlates for stress reactivity in humans, providing candidate neurochemical mechanisms for human research and suggesting general theoretical models of psychological functioning across species. In this article, the basic neurochemical elements underlying stress reactivity are described. In addition, the probabilistic epigenesis theoretical model is used to introduce the necessary developmental and genetic context for the understanding of the psychobiology of individual differences in stress reactivity. Finally, some previous research and potential avenues of research in posttraumatic stress disorder are described using the concepts that emerged from animal research.

O conceito de resiliência: diferentes olhares / Resilience concept: different perspectives

O conceito de resiliência transita entre aspectos físicos, biológicos e psíquicos.Podemos identifica-lo desde o primórdio da teoria psicanalítica, evoluindopara além da psicanálise nas mais diversas áreas da ciência. Seu estudo émuito útil na busca do entendimento dos fenômenos humanos, a partir dainter-relação entre as experiências primitivas, o ambiente, a neurobiologia ea genética. Este trabalho se propõe discutir o conceito de resiliência atravésde uma revisão histórica, partindo das teorias clássicas da psicanálise e dapsicologia do desenvolvimento e de sua evolução nos diferentes campos daciência até os achados mais recentes da psicobiologia.

The concept of resilience moves through physical, biological and psychologicalfields. It can be identified since the beginnings of psychoanalytic theory,evolving beyond psychoanalysis in several scientific areas. Its investigation isvery useful in the study of human phenomena, considering the interrelationshipbetween early experiences, the environment, neurobiology andgenetics. This paper aims to discuss the concept of resilience through ahistorical review, starting from the classical theories of psychoanalysis and developmental psychology and evolving to its development in different fieldsof science to the most recent findings of psychobilogy.

Psicobiología de la homosexualidad masculina: hallazgos recientes / Psychobiology of male homosexuality: recent findings

En esta revisión se examinan reportes empíricos y teóricos que indagan sobre las causas de la homosexualidad masculina. Con base en ellos se establece que la homosexualidad masculina difiere de la femenina en algunos aspectos. Adicionalmente, se muestra evidencia suficiente para considerar la homosexualidad masculina como una condición biológica: existen diferencias cerebrales entre hombres gais y hombres heterosexuales, factores genéticos y prenatales asociados con la homosexualidad, diferencias cognitivas y comportamentales, modelos animales para estudiar la homosexualidad; por último, no se ha encontrado evidencia de factores psicosociales asociados con la condición de homosexualidad en los hombres.

In this paper, empirical and theoretical reports which question the causes ofmale homosexuality are examined. According to these reports, male homosexuality differs from female homosexuality in some respects. Additionally, evidence favouring the consideration of male homosexuality as a biological condition is shown: there are brain differences between gay men and heterosexual men, there are genetic and perinatal factors associated to malehomosexuality, there are cognitive and behavioral differences between gayand heterosexual men, there are animal models for studying homosexuality;finally, there are negative findings concerning the psychosocial factorsassociated to male homosexuality.