El trasfondo romántico del concepto de religión de Max Scheler

En la modernidad, la reflexión moral ha estado influida por orientaciones fundamentadas en la razón y en el sentimiento. Dos ejemplares de estas orientaciones son la Ilustración y el Romanticismo, respectivamente. El desarrollo de estos movimientos culturales e intelectuales está asociado a las demandas por los derechos políticos y sociales, junto a la insistencia en la importancia de la solidaridad y la hermandad en el desarrollo de las comunidades. Este artículo de reflexión presenta una perspectiva interpretativa del concepto de religión de Max Scheler La reflexión está enfocada en las raíces románticas de la propuesta Scheleriana, derivadas de la discusión moderna entre el Racionalismo y el Romanticismo. Adicionalmente, se presenta el contexto político y social al que responde la conceptualización de Scheler: Como resultado de esta reflexión, se concluye que el concepto de religión de Scheler reivindica la importancia de los valores y el compromiso moral frente a las crisis políticas que sufrió Europa a inicios del siglo XX.

In modernity moral reflection has been influenced by orientations grounded in reason and in feeling. Two exemplars of these orientations are the Enlightenment and Romanticism, respectively The development of these cultural and intellectual movements is associated with demands for social and political rights, together with the insistence in the importance of solidarity and brotherhood in the development of communities. This reflection paper presents an interpretative perspective of Max Scheler's concept of religion. The reflection is focused on the romantic roots of the Schelerian proposal, derived from the modern discussion between Rationalism and Romanticism. Additionally the political and social context to which Scheler's conceptualization responds is presented. As a result of this reflection, it is concluded that Scheler's concept of religion claims the importance of values and moral commitment against Europe's political crises at the beginning of the 20th century.

Na modernidade, a reflexão moral foi influenciada por orientações baseadas na razão e no sentimento. Dois exemplos dessas orientações são o Iluminismo e o Romantismo, respectivamente. O desenvolvimento desses movimentos culturais e intelectuais está associado a demandas por direitos políticos e sociais, juntamente com a insistência na importância da solidariedade e da fraternidade no desenvolvimento das comunidades. Este artigo de reflexão apresenta uma perspectiva interpretativa sobre o conceito de religião de Max Scheler O foco da reflexão são as raízes românticas da abordagem scheleriana, derivadas da discussão moderna entre racionalismo e romantismo. Além disso, é apresentado o contexto político e social ao qual a conceitualização de Scheler responde. Como resultado dessa reflexão, conclui-se que o conceito de religião de Scheler reivindica a importância dos valores e do compromisso moral diante das crises políticas sofridas pela Europa no início do século XX.

Da Gnosiologia à Epistemologia: um caminho científico para uma terapia baseada em evidências / From Gnosiology to Epistemology: a scientific path to an evidence-based therapy

Este trabalho tem como objetivo discutir como conceitos da teoria do conhecimento, particularmente a gnosiologia e a epistemologia, podem contribuir para o estudo das bases filosóficas da terapia cognitiva. Outro objetivo deste trabalho é analisar a influência do construtivismo e do racionalismo crítico no desenvolvimento dos objetivos terapêuticos e das técnicas em terapia cognitiva. Esses objetivos são alcançados a partir da revisão do idealismo transcendental de Kant, do conceito de construtivismo e da influência da psicologia cognitiva na terapia cognitiva. Analisa-se também a terapia cognitiva como uma prática científica, baseada no método hipotético-dedutivo. Nesse sentido, as etapas do processo terapêutico em terapia cognitiva e a aplicabilidade de algumas técnicas cognitivas e comportamentais em cada etapa são analisadas a partir do método hipotético-dedutivo, utilizando como analogia as práticas de pesquisa. Por fim, discute-se a visão da terapia cognitiva como um processo de aprendizagem e a influência do terapeuta no processo terapêutico...

This paper aims to discuss how the theory of knowledge, mainly gnosiology and epistemology, can contribute to the study of the philosophical foundations of cognitive therapy. Furthermore, this study aims to analyze the influence of constructivism and critical rationalism in the development of therapeutic goals and techniques of cognitive therapy. These goals are achieved from reviewing the transcendental idealism of Kant, the concept of constructivism and the influence of cognitive psychology in cognitive therapy. It also examines the cognitive therapy as a scientific practice, based on the hypothetical-deductive method. In this direction, the steps of the therapeutic process in cognitive therapy and the application of some cognitive and behavioral techniques for each step are analyzed from the hypothetical-deductive method perspective, using research practices as an analogy. Finally, we discuss the vision of cognitive therapy as a learning process and the influence of the therapist in the therapeutic process...

Elementos para articular la medicalización con la tradición médica occidental y la Koiné de la salud contemporánea / Elements of join medicalization with the western medical tradition and contemporary health Koine

Introducción: racionalidad y mensurabilidad de la salud-enfermedad sustentan los imaginarios sociales para generar una koiné de la salud que se articula con la tradición médica occidental al determinar la manera de vivir en forma saludable. Objetivo: identificar elementos históricos y filosóficos que permitan comprender la medicalización como eje articulador de la tradición médica occidental y la koiné de la salud contemporánea. Desarrollo: punto de partida. La medicalización se remonta a la Escuela Hipocrática y el pensamiento de Andrés Vesalio; se identifican el olvido de la salud, la hegemonía de la enfermedad y la mensurabilidad de variables clínicas, como elementos que dan sentido a la tradición médica occidental. Horizonte de comprensión: la matematización de la naturaleza y la apropiación del experimento a través de William Harvey y Claudio Bernard, permiten aproximarse a la enfermedad mediante el concepto de normalidad y lo patológico; también se destaca la influencia de las condiciones materiales de vida en el proceso de enfermedad. Fusión de horizontes: la influencia de lo social en la Medicina a través de Durkheim, Canguilhem, Dubos, Salleras, Terris, Pérez Lovelle, Laframboise y Lalonde, genera un sincretismo que posibilita delimitar el campo de la salud e incorporar la responsabilidad del paciente para conservar el estado de salud. Conclusiones: el estudio realizado permite concluir que el olvido de la salud, la hegemonía de la enfermedad, la mensurabilidad de variables clínicas, la normalidad, los determinantes de salud y estilos de vida son elementos que articulan la tradición médica occidental con la koiné de la salud contemporánea.

Introduction: rationality and measurability of health-supporting social imaginary disease to generate a health koine that articulates with the Western medical tradition to determine how to live a healthy life. Objective: identify historical and philosophical elements that allow to approach the understanding of medicalization as the linchpin of the Western Medical Tradition and contemporary health Koine. Develo Starting point: the medicalization goes back to school Hippocratic and thinking Andreas Vesalius, identifies health oblivion, the hegemony of the disease and the measurability of clinical variables as elements that give meaning to the Western Medical Tradition. Horizon of understanding: the mathematization of nature and ownership of the experiment by William Harvey and Claude Bernard, can approach the disease through the concept of normal and pathological, also highlights the influence of the material conditions of life in the process of becoming ill. Fusion of horizons: the influence of social in medicine through Durkheim, Canguilhem, Dubos, Salleras, Terris, Pérez Lovelle, Laframboise and Lalonde, creates a syncretism that allows to define the field of health and incorporating the patient's responsibility to maintain health state. Conclusions: The study leads to the conclusion that: the neglect of health, the hegemony of the disease, the measurability of clinical variables, normality, determinants of health and lifestyles are elements that articulate the Western medical tradition with health Koine contemporary.

Questionário de Estilos de Defesa: avaliação psicométrica e redefinição conceitual / Defensive Style Questionnaire: psychometrical evaluation and construct reset / Cuestionario de Estilos de Defensa: evaluación psicométrica y redefinición conceptual

Devido à irredutibilidade epistemológica entre Psicometria e Psicanálise, rejeitamos que o Questionário Estilo de Defesa avalie mecanismos de defesa do ego. A fim de elucidar os construtos avaliados, desenvolvemos um estudo psicométrico. Participou respondendo ao Questionário de Estilos de Defesa e ao Composite International Diagnostic Interview uma amostra representativa da população carcerária do Estado de São Paulo de 1775 indivíduos. A análise se caracterizou por seleção de itens, análises fatoriais, análise de consistência interna, correlações e testes-t. Os resultados reduziram o número de itens de 78 para 23 e revelaram quatro fatores correlacionados com consistência aceitável para os três primeiros e insuficiente para o quarto. Encontraram-se associações significativas entre o segundo fator e dependência de droga, assim como entre o primeiro e terceiro fatores e déficit cognitivo. O instrumento parece avaliar uma dimensão não patológica de sofrimento e três de enfrentamento; entretanto, não há suporte empírico e conceitual para sua utilização clínica.

Due to the epistemological irreducibility between Psychometrics and Psychoanalysis we reject the hypothesis that the Defensive Style Questionnaire assesses ego defense mechanisms. To identify the constructs assessed by the Defensive Style Questionnaire we delineated an exploratory psychometrical work. In the current research, participated responding the Defensive Style Questionnaire and the Composite International Diagnostic Interview a representative sample of the São Paulo State prisoner population of 1775 individuals. Analyses were characterized by item selection, factor analysis, internal consistency analysis, correlations and t-tests. Results downsized the number of items from 78 to 23 and reveled four oblique factors with acceptable consistency for three and insufficient for the fourth factor. Significant associations were found between the second factor and drug addiction and among the first and third factors and cognitive deficit. The instrument seems to assess a non-pathological dimension of mental distress and three affective coping dimensions; nevertheless, there is no support for its clinical application.

Debido a la irreductibilidad epistemológica entre Psicometría y Psicoanálisis, rechazamos el Cuestionario de Estilos de Defensa para evaluar mecanismos de defensa del ego. Con el fin de elucidar los constructos evaluados, hemos desarrollado un estudio psicométrico. Participó, respondiendo al Cuestionario de Estilos de Defesa y al Composite International Diagnostic Interview, una muestra representativa de la población carcelaria del Estado de São Paulo de 1775 individuos. El análisis se caracterizó por selección de ítems, análisis factoriales, análisis de consistencia interna, correlaciones y testes-t. Los resultados redujeron el número de ítems de 78 para 23 y revelaron cuatro factores correlacionados con consistencia aceptable para los tres primeros e insuficiente para el cuarto. Se encontraron asociaciones significativas entre el segundo factor y la adicción a las drogas, así como entre l primero y tercero factores y déficit cognitivo. El instrumento parece evaluar una dimensión no patológica de sufrimiento y tres de enfrentamiento; sin embargo, no hay soporte empírico y conceptual para su uso clínico.

The Contradictive Tendencies in Medical Treatment of the Hellenistic Age: Diversity versus Simplification, Chronic Extension(Physical Therapy) versus Rapidity, Humane Medicine versus Worldly Success / 의사학

It is a one-sided view to find the greatness of Hippocrates just in seeking after scientific medicine(medicina scientia) and sublating superstitious treatment. The scientific medicine did not begin with him, and the succeeding generations of him were not one and the same in opinions. For example, there were the confrontations between the school of Kos and that of Knidos in the very age of Hippocrates, as well as the opposition of rationalism and empiricism. The school of Kos was alleged to succeed the tradition of Hippocrates, taking into consideration individual physical conditions and being based on the principle of various clinical methods of physical therapy assuming chronical extension. On the contrary, the school of Knidos tended to define the diseases in simple aspects, paying no much attention to the difference of physical conditions and developmental stages of illness. Futhermore, the latter grasped the diseases rather in the point of individual organs than the disorder of physical state of the body. It can be said that the anatomical knowledge was more useful for the school of Knidos. The difference between the two schools can also be found in what purpose the medicine sought after. While Hippocrates attached much importance to physical therapy and made the people including the poor as object of medical treatment. there were doctors in no small number, we can suppose, in pursuit of money, power, worldly glory. As time passed, however, the two schools gradually got similar to each other, the difference of them reduced as well as the tradition of Hippocrates faded. The opposition between rationalism and empiricism in the Hellenistic Age shared, in some aspect, the difference of Kos and Knidos. According to Celsus, the conflict between rationalism and empiricism did not refer to pharmacy or anatomy, but just to diet. The rationalism materialized various methods of therapy considering environmental elements as well as individual physical conditions, but the empiricism in reality tended to expedite simplification of treatment. This tendency of simplification of the latter corresponded to the contemporary need of society, that is, speedy and effective treatment for the wounded in war or for epidemic in the army, farms of collective labour or much crowded cities. The bigger the groups were, the more the methods of treatment got simplified, individual conditions not much accounted. Then, the empiricism came to be united with anatomy, as the anatomy, being much developed in the process of curing the wounded in war, goes with simplification of medical treatment in the hospital of large scale. It can be said that the origin of simplified definition of diseases goes back far to the school of Knidos. On the other hand, in Hippocrates the drugs were in contrast to the diet. While the diet was to help health and rehabilitate physical conditions, the drugs were to result in strong effects of change. The drugs like as poison, eye-salve, ointment were to be made use f for rapid, effective change of physical state or for the treatment of a concrete, limited part of the body, These drugs were also much developed in the Hellenistic Age of the state of chronic war. In initial stages, the toxical drugs as well as the anatomy and surgical operations must have been developed on peaceful purpose, such like as 'theriaca' detoxicating(antidoting) animal's poison, or for easing childbirth. With the increasement of social inequality and unexhausted human desire, however, the toxical drugs or anatomical knowledges got to be used for undesirable purposes. Thus, we can not estimate Hippocrates simply in the point whether he developed scientific medicine or not. The great fame of Hippocrates could be found rather in his method of medical treatment as well as the principle of medicine, as he believed that the medicine should not be exploited for worldly power or wealth but for the convenience of all the people. He pursued healthy life matching to natural state(physis) and took much account of different physical states of individual to embody various methods of treatment, which presupposed chronic delay. The opposite to the Hippocratic medicine is called for the wounded by war, or the collective labourer of large farm with intensive labour exploitation. The medical treatment for them assumed anatomical surgery and drugs of rapid, strong effect.

Cognitivismo e racionalismo crítico / Cognitivism and critical rationalism

A Revolução Cognitiva só se tornou possível graças à mudança na concepção de ciência moderna ocorrida a partir da obra de Karl Popper. Ao minar e posteriormente derrotar o Positivismo Lógico como teoria epistemológica geral, o Racionalismo Crítico acabou com o mito da indução e da observação neutra como fonte original de conhecimento científico. Além disso, ajudou a generalizar o reconhecimento de que o método de investigação da ciência moderna era o hipotético-dedutivo, e não o indutivo-experimental. Sem o enfraquecimento da posição antes hegemônica do Positivismo Lógico em filosofia da ciência, o estudo empírico de processos cognitivos não poderia ter conquistado o respeito da comunidade científica. Além disso, o Cognitivismo é plenamente compatível com o Racionalismo Crítico, como podemos ver na identidade entre as teses filosóficas de Popper e do Cognitivismo sobre o construtivismo realista (Piaget), o caráter antecipatório da percepção (Bruner), a observação que se faz contra ou a favor de uma teoria (Neisser), a rejeição da tabula rasa (Chomsky), o interacionismo (Sperry) e o caráter de imprevisibilidade que o conhecimento traz ao sujeito (Neisser). Entretanto, o Cognitivismo apresentava até vinte anos atrás uma surpreendente inconsciência em relação ao caráter precursor da filosofia de Popper. Essa inconsciência se revela particularmente surpreendente no silêncio do Cognitivismo em relação à origem de seu modelo de método geral científico

The Cognitive Revolution turned possible only thanks to the change in the conception of modernscience started with Karl Popper's work. Debilitating and defeating the Logical Positivism as generalepistemological theory, the Critical Rationalism put an end to the myth of induction and to theneutral observation as original source of scientific knowledge. Besides, it helped to generalize therecognition that the method of investigation of the modern science was the hypothetical-deductive,not the inductive-experimental. Without the weakness of the position before hegemonic of theLogical Positivism in philosophy of science, the empiric study of cognitive processes could nothave conquered the scientific community's respect. Besides, the Cognitivism is fully compatiblewith the Critical Rationalism, as we can see in the identity among the philosophical theories ofPopper and Cognitivism about the realist constructivism (Piaget), the anticipatory character ofperception (Bruner), the observation that is done against or in favor of a theory (Neisser), therejection of the tabula rasa (Chomsky), the interacionism (Sperry) and the dimension ofunpredictability that the knowledge brings to the subject (Neisser). However, Cognitivism presentedup to twenty years ago a surprising unconsciousness in relation to the precursory character of thePopper's philosophy. This ignorance is particularly surprising in the silence of Cognitivism aboutthe origin of its model of general scientific method