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Abstract | Introduction: Enteric viruses have been associated with the production of a variety of diseases transmitted by the fecal-oral route and carried through contaminated food and water. Given their structure and composition, they are highly resistant to environmental conditions and most of the chemical agents used in the purification processes. Therefore, the systematic monitoring of raw water is necessary to ensure its quality especially when it is used for producing drinking water for human consumption. Objective: We identified the presence of rotavirus and hepatitis A virus by means of the fluoro-immuno-magnetic separation technique (FIMS) in raw water taken from four purification plants and their water supplies in the department of Norte de Santander. Materials and methods: The viruses were captured and separated from the water samples using magnetic microparticles functionalized with monoclonal anti-Hepatitis A and anti-Rotavirus antibodies. Confocal microscopy was used to monitor the viral concentration process and transmission electron microscopy for the morphological visualization of the separated viruses. The reverse transcriptase-coupled polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was applied to confirm the presence of pathogens. Results: The two enteric viruses were identified in the majority of the analyzed water samples including water supply sources. Conclusion: We determined that the FIMS technique together with RT-PCR is highly effective for the detection of viral pathogens in complex matrices such as raw water.
Resumen | Introducción. Los virus entéricos se asocian con una serie de enfermedades transmitidas por vía fecal-oral en alimentos o agua contaminada. Dada su estructura y composición, son muy resistentes a las condiciones ambientales y a la mayoría de los agentes químicos empleados en los procesos de potabilización, por lo cual es necesario un monitoreo sistemático del agua cruda para asegurar su calidad, máxime cuando se emplea como materia prima en la producción de agua potable para consumo humano. Objetivo. Determinar la presencia de rotavirus y del virus de la hepatitis A mediante la técnica de separación fluoro-inmuno-magnética en agua cruda procedente de cuatro plantas de potabilización y sus fuentes hídricas en el departamento de Norte de Santander. Materiales y métodos. Los virus fueron capturados y separados a partir de las muestras de agua, empleando micropartículas magnéticas funcionalizadas con anticuerpos monoclonales anti-hepatitis A y anti-rotavirus. Se empleó microscopía confocal para hacer el seguimiento del proceso de concentración viral y, microscopía electrónica de transmisión, para la visualización morfológica de los virus separados. La reacción en cadena de la polimerasa acoplada a transcriptasa inversa (RT-PCR) se utilizó para confirmar la presencia de los patógenos. Resultados. Los dos virus entéricos se detectaron en la mayoría de las muestras de agua analizadas, incluidas las de sus fuentes hídricas. Conclusión. La técnica de separación fluoro-inmuno-magnética acoplada a RT-PCR fue altamente efectiva en la detección de patógenos virales en matrices complejas como el agua cruda.
Subject(s)
Rotavirus Infections , Raw Water , Magnetic Segregation , Water Purification , Hepatitis A , AntibodiesABSTRACT
Resumen | Introducción. La toxoplasmosis es una zoonosis que se transmite por vía oral al consumir alimentos contaminados con cualquier forma infectiva de Toxoplasma gondii. Su transmisión por agua ha sido documentada en varios países, incluido Colombia. Al no disponer de agua potable, la población rural de Sincelejo podría estar en riesgo de contraer toxoplasmosis por esta vía. Objetivo. Evaluar la contaminación por T. gondii del agua para consumo humano proveniente de jagüeyes de la zona rural de Sincelejo y establecer su relación con diferentes determinantes sociales de la salud en el área de estudio. Materiales y métodos. Mediante PCR anidada, se evaluaron 96 muestras de agua obtenidas en 48 fincas ubicadas en ocho corregimientos rurales de Sincelejo. En cada finca se obtuvieron dos muestras: una de agua cruda de jagüey y otra destinada al consumo directo. En cada finca se hizo una encuesta para recolectar información sobre características físicas de la vivienda, presencia de gatos, y disponibilidad de agua y sus usos. Las relaciones estadísticas se evaluaron con el test de Fisher. Resultados. De las 96 muestras analizadas, 13 resultaron contaminadas con T. gondii(13,5 %): nueve de agua cruda y cuatro de agua para el consumo directo. No se encontró asociación estadística entre las muestras positivas y los determinantes sociales de la salud evaluados (p>0,05). Conclusión. La población rural de Sincelejo podría estar en riesgo de contraer toxoplasmosis por el uso y consumo del agua proveniente de sus jagüeyes. La contaminación de estos cuerpos de agua por T. gondii puede estar influenciada por otros determinantes sociales de la salud no contemplados aquí.
Abstract | Introduction:Toxoplasmosis is an orally-transmitted zoonosis that may appear after consuming food contaminated with any infective form of Toxoplasma gondii. Its transmission by water has been reported in several countries including Colombia. The rural population of Sincelejo could be at risk of contracting toxoplasmosis through this route given that they lack potable water. Objective: To evaluate T. gondii contamination in water for human consumption from water wells (jagüeyes) in the rural area of Sincelejo and establish its relationship with different social determinants of health in the study area. Materials and methods: Using nested PCR we evaluated 96 water samples obtained from 48 farms located in eight rural townships in Sincelejo. We took two samples in each farm: one of raw water from water wells and the other intended for direct consumption. We conducted a survey on each farm to collect information on the physical characteristics of dwellings, the presence of cats, and the availability and uses of water. Statistical relationships were evaluated through Fisher tests. Results: Of the 96 samples analyzed, 13 were contaminated with T. gondii (13.5%): Nine corresponded to raw water and four to water for direct consumption. No statistical association was found between the positive samples and the social determinants of health under evaluation (p>0.05). Conclusion: The rural population of Sincelejo could be at risk of contracting toxoplasmosis through the use and/or consumption of water from its water wells. The contamination of these water bodies by T. gondii may be influenced by unstudied social determinants.
Subject(s)
Toxoplasma , Raw Water , Polymerase Chain Reaction , Social Determinants of HealthABSTRACT
Objective@#To investigate the distribution of gross α and gross β radioactive levels in drinking raw water from different regions of Guangdong province, and to establish the radioactive level base line value in raw water.@*Methods@#The samples from 191 drinking water sources in use in Guangdong province were collected in rainy season and dry season, respectively, and determined and analyzed under the standard examination method for drinking water-radiological parameters (GB/T 5750.13-2006). The levels of gross α and gross β radioactivity were evaluated under the standard for drinking water quality (GB 5749-2006).@*Results@#A total of 377 raw water samples were taken, including 189 samples in rainy season and 188 samples in dry season, in which 186 samples were matched between rainy season and dry season. In dry season, the gross α levels ranged from 0.008 Bq/L to 0.582 Bq/L, averaged at (0.034±0.060) Bq/L, while the gross β levels ranged from 0.014 Bq/L to 0.637 Bq/L, averaged at (0.108±0.091) Bq/L. In rainy season, the gross α levels ranged from 0.008 Bq/L to 0.402 Bq/L, averaged at (0.045±0.064) Bq/L, while the gross β levels ranged from 0.014 Bq/Lto 0.848 Bq/L, averaged at (0.125±0.128) Bq/L. The gross α and gross β radioactivity levels of other samples were much lower than the guidance values in the national radioactivity standards on drinking water radioactivity, except for a sample from Shanwei area. The gross α and gross β radioactivity levels in the rainy season were higher than in the dry water season, and the gross α radioactivity levels in the rainy season were significantly higher than in the dry water season. There were significant differences in gross α and gross β radioactivity levels in rainy(Frainy season=1.819, 2.709, P<0.05) and dry season (Fdry season=1.985, 8.461, P<0.05)in different water systems, and the levels of gross α and gross β radioactivity in the rivers in western Guangdong were the highest. The gross α and gross β radioactivity levels of groundwater in rainy season were higher than in river water and lake water, and the gross α and gross β radioactivity levels in river water were higher than in lake and reservoir water, with the statistically significant differences(Ftotal α=39.323, Ftotal β=25.911, P<0.05), the gross α and gross β radioactivity levels in dry season were higher than in river water and lake water, with the statistically significant difference(Ftotal α=11.520, Ftotal β=28.435, P<0.05). The highest radioactivity levels is in groundwater, followed by river water, and the lowest is in lake and reservoir water.@*Conclusions@#The natural radioactivity background levels in drinking raw water in Guangdong province is lower than the limit value on drinking water stipulated by our country. The radioactivity levels in raw water in western Guangdong is significantly higher than in other water systems, and the radioactivity level in river water is also significantly higher than in lake and reservoir water.
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RESUMO A cobrança pelo uso da água bruta no Brasil foi introduzida pela Lei nº 9.433, de 08 de janeiro de 1997, como um instrumento econômico de gestão dos recursos hídricos brasileiros, com o intuito de induzir os agentes usuários ao uso racional da água, reconhecer o valor econômico da água e obter recursos financeiros. A Bacia Hidrográfica do Rio São Francisco implementou o seu sistema de cobrança pelo uso da água em julho de 2010, não passando por nenhuma modificação ou melhoria desde então. Nesta pesquisa, apresenta-se uma análise desse sistema de cobrança, identificando os aspectos passíveis de aperfeiçoamento e a simulando as modificações propostas para a Região Hidrográfica do Submédio São Francisco. Os resultados indicaram que é necessário rever os valores de cobrança adotados atualmente. Os Preços Públicos Unitários (PPUs) apresentam defasagem acumulada em torno de 50%, mediante as taxas inflacionárias brasileiras. Os aspectos quantitativo, qualitativo e de proteção a situações emergenciais, atualmente existentes na metodologia de cobrança, não se mostram suficientes para auxiliar na sustentabilidade hídrica da bacia. Entre as alterações sugeridas para o sistema de cobrança estão a consideração de situações de escassez hídrica, de prioridade no uso, de tratamento dos efluentes e de tecnologia de irrigação. Tais alterações revelam-se eficazes ao reduzir/aumentar consideravelmente os valores a serem pagos pelos usuários, podendo, assim, induzir ações preventivas e de redução dos desperdícios.
ABSTRACT A raw water charge in Brazil was introduced by Law nº 9.433 on 8 January, 1997, as an economic instrument to manage Brazil's water resources. Its purpose is to induce water users to rationally consume water, to recognize the economic value of water, and to obtain financial resources. The São Francisco River Basin implemented a raw water charge in July of 2010, and nothing has changed or improved since. This paper presents an analysis of this raw water charge system, identifies aspects that can be improved, and simulates the proposed improvements for water users of the Submédio São Francisco Hydrographic Region. The results showed that it is necessary to review the values currently used in the raw water charge system. The public unit prices (PUP) have an accumulated lag of around 50%, due to Brazilian inflation rates. The measurement of quantitative and qualitative aspects in addition to the protection against emergency situations that currently exist in the raw water charge system are not sufficient to assist in the basin's water sustainability. Changes suggested for the raw water charge system include the consideration of water scarcity, priority in water use, the treatment of effluents and irrigation technology, among others. Such changes prove to be effective in considerably reducing or increasing amounts to be paid by users, and can thus induce preventive actions and reduce waste.
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A implantação de uma unidade de pré-tratamento a montante de um filtro ascendente (FA) existente objetiva condicionar a água bruta eutrofizada à capacidade de tratamento do FA. Essa solução esbarra na necessidade de se instalar essa unidade de pré-tratamento com cota mais elevada que o filtro a jusante. Nesta pesquisa, a instalação de um filtro de pressão de fluxo descendente possibilitou a eliminação do problema do desnível geométrico e a adequação da água bruta com elevada presença de fitoplâncton às limitações da filtração direta ascendente (FDA). O pré-filtro de pressão com melhor eficiência, o PFP1, apresentou uma remoção de 50% de cor aparente e 63% de turbidez. A eficiência global do sistema PFP/FA foi satisfatória, apresentando turbidez final inferior a 0,5 uT, cor aparente em torno de 5 uH, além de reduzir as perdas da água tratada de 11,7 para 4,5%.
The implementation of a pretreatment unit before existing upward filter, to condition the eutrophic raw waters to its capacity, is an option which runs into a problem of technical nature, the need of a pretreatment unit with enough hydraulic load to properly feed the existing filter. Typically, the available studies on double filtration present upward filters followed by descendant ones. In this study, the installation of a pressure filter downflow adapted the raw water with high algae concentration to the upward direct filtration system limitations, improving the quality of water produced and reducing losses by washing. The pressure filter with better efficiency was the PFP1 filter showed a removal of 50% of apparent color and 63% of turbidity. The overall efficiency of the PFP/FA system was satisfactory, presenting final turbidity of less than 0.5 uT, apparent color around 5 uH and reducing losses from 11.7 to 4.5% of the total treated water.
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Na análise de desempenho das estações de tratamento de água, as características do afluente adquirem significativa importância. No Brasil, o Índice de Qualidade das Águas Brutas para Fins de Abastecimento Público (IAP) e o Índice de Qualidade da Água Bruta (IQAB), desenvolvidos segundo modelos determinísticos, prestam-se a avaliar a tratabilidade das águas naturais. Todavia, o IAP tem baixa aplicabilidade devido ao custo de implantação, e o IQAB ainda necessita de ajustes com relação aos parâmetros de entrada e critérios de pontuação. Na busca por modelo não determinístico, capaz de lidar com as incertezas, a não linearidade dos parâmetros e o conhecimento de especialistas, foi utilizada a Lógica Fuzzy em nova abordagem para o IQAB. Aplicado em seis mananciais da Região Sudeste, o Índice de Qualidade de Água Bruta Fuzzy (IQABF) apresentou-se mais restritivo, mais consistente para quantificação dos parâmetros e mais flexível para ajustes futuros, apesar de manter praticamente a mesma hierarquização entre os mananciais avaliados.
For the performance evaluation of water treatment plants, the raw water quality presents significant relevance. In Brazil, the Index of Quality of Raw Water for Public Supply (IAP) and the Index of Quality of Raw Water (IQAB), developed according to deterministic models, can evaluate the treatability of natural waters. However, the IAP presents a high cost for actual implementation and the IQAB needs some adjustments related to the input parameters and grading criteria. Aiming at a non-deterministic model, able to deal with uncertain, nonlinearity of the parameters and expert knowledge, Fuzzy Logic was applied to a new approach of the IQAB. The Fuzzy Raw Water Quality Index (IQABF), in comparison with the original IQAB, presented more restrictive, more consistent and more flexible for future adjustments. Its application for six water sources of Southeast Region showed practically the same hierarchy in terms of the treatability in comparison with the original IQAB.
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This study aims to evaluate the carbon footprint of raw water from reservoirs for domestic use in Taiwan. It also provides a preliminary measure and reference database for greenhouse gas (GHG) emission of reservoir systems in Taiwan. Four reservoirs, Feitsui (F.T.) and Liyutan (L.Y.T.) in subtropical zone and Nanhua (N.H.) and Tsengwen (T.W.) in tropical zone, were selected as the cases to be examined for carbon footprint inventory, including the GHG emission from the water body and from human activities. Carbon footprint inventory followed PAS 2050 (2011 Specification for the assessment of the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of goods and services). GHG emission from water body followed the instruction of UNESCO guidelines. The boundary of this inventory covers the water intake works, impoundment region, the dam, the affiliated hydroelectricity power plant, the administration center and other facilities. In this study, the floating chambers with gas chromatography (GC) were chosen to measure the GHG flux from the water body. For the emission of CH4 and N2O from the water body, there are no significantly difference between the fluxes during the daytime and nighttime. For carbon dioxide, the instantaneous flux during the nighttime is higher than the daytime flux. The two reservoirs in tropical zone emit more CO2e from the water body than those in subtropical zone. Summarizing the direct and indirect GHG emission, for the four reservoirs, the annual emission quantities ranged from 653 ton of CO2e to 23,146 ton of CO2e. The carbon footprint of water supply for domestic use ranged from 0.002 kg CO2e/m3 to 0.028 kg CO2e/m3. Roughly speaking, the total GHG emission quantity of the 24 main reservoirs in Taiwan was estimated to be around 121,800 ton of CO2e with the total yield of 4.35 billion m3 of water annually using the highest carbon footprint 0.028 kg CO2e/m3.
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Using Chl a removal rate as index, a 28 kHz/900w ultrasonic cleaning machine was applied to testify algal removal by ultrasonic irradiation from raw water of a pool, where Microcystis aeruginosa colonies is absolutely dominated with temperature being over 20oC, and the irradiation lasted for 5 min. PAC was used as flocculant at the dose of 60 mgl-1, jar tests were done to investigate the Chl a removal by flocculation. The results showed that ultrasound raised the water temperature instantly but did not lead to a regular pH change pattern in all the treated samples. Ultrasound could remove more than 90% of Chl a from raw water with temperature over 31oC, but less than 20% of Chl a or even increased Chl a concentration in some samples with temperature lower than 31 oC. Compared with the algal removal effects by direct raw water flocculation with PAC, ultrasound did not enhance markedly the flocculation effects on algae removal, which was not in agreement with the findings reported. The reason might be due to morphology and characteristics of natural algae differed greatly from that of algae cultured in laboratory.
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Actualmente municipios de la Costa Atlántica Colombiana no cuentan con suministro de agua potable. La aplicación artesanal de la Tuna (Opuntia ficus-indica) como coagulante es una práctica tradicional en comunidades rurales. En esta investigación se realiza la caracterización del tallo de la Tuna que crece de manera silvestre en el departamento de Bolívar, y del polvo extraído de esta planta, con el fin de identificar componentes asociados a su poder coagulante para la remoción de turbidez y de color en aguas crudas. Las pencas de la planta se sometieron a operaciones de corte, pelado, secado, molienda, tamizado y despigmentado para obtener el coagulante. El rendimiento del proceso global fue de 65g de coagulante/Kg de material vegetal. Los resultados indicaron que la penca contiene alto porcentaje de humedad y pequeñas proporciones de saponinas, flavonoides, sales minerales de calcio y hierro; lo cual permitió concluir que estos metabolitos y sales no son los responsables de su poder coagulante debido a las cantidades poco significativas en las que se encuentran. Se consideró que otras especies química tales como el ácido poligalacturónico y compuestos algínicos son realmente los que le confieran la cualidad al biomaterial. También, se evaluó el poder coagulante del material extraído, se analizó el efecto de tres dosis sobre el color, la turbidez y el pH del agua tratada. Los resultados indicaron que tiene la capacidad de remover 50% del color y 70% de turbidez de aguas crudas con alta turbidez inicial, y que no altera significativamente su pH.
Currently, municipalities in the Colombian Atlantic Coast do not have potable water supply. The implementation of the Tuna as a coagulant is a traditional practice in rural communities, but is used in craft way. In the present investigation, the characterization of the stalk of Tuna (Opuntia ficus-indica) growing in the wild in the Bolivar department, and of the powder extracted from this plant was realized with the purpose to identify components associated with its coagulant power to remove color and turbidity in raw water. The stalks of this plant were subjected to cutting, peeling, drying, grinding, sieving and depigment for obtaining the coagulant. The overall process yield was 65g of coagulant/kg of vegetal material. The results also indicated that the stalk of Tuna contains high moisture content and low amounts of saponins, flavonoids, minerals, calcium and iron. It allowed concluding that these metabolites and salts are not responsible of the coagulant power of plant due to the insignificant amounts in which they are present. Therefore, it is presumed that other chemical species such as polygalacturonic acid and alginic compounds are those that confer the quality to the biomaterial. Also, the coagulant power of extracted material was evaluated. The effect of three dosis on the color, turbidity and pH of trated water was analized. The results indicated that it has the capacity to remove 50% of color and 70% of turbity from crude water with high initial turbidity. Also, it does not affect significantly its pH.
Subject(s)
Opuntia , Opuntia , Raw Water , Saponins , FlavonoidsABSTRACT
Objetivo. La evaluación de la calidad del agua incluye el análisis de parámetros tanto físico-químicos como microbiológicos. Sinembargo, ninguno de estos evalúa el efecto biológico que se puede generar en los ecosistemas o en el hombre. Con el objetivo de definirlos organismos más indicados para evaluar la toxicidad en el afluente y efluente de tres plantas potabilizadoras, se utilizaron cincobioensayos de toxicidad aguda, incorporando tres grupos taxonómicos de la cadena trófica. Materiales y métodos. Los bioensayosempleados fueron Daphnia magna e Hydra attenuata como modelos animales, Lactuca sativa y Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata comomodelos vegetales y Photobacterium leioghnathi como modelo bacteriano. Para cumplir con este objetivo, se utilizaron criterios deselección de los organismos a evaluar y análisis de conglomerados (AC) para identificar los más sensibles en los afluentes y efluentesde cada una de las plantas. Resultados. Todos los bioensayos son pruebas potencialmente útiles para evaluar la calidad del agua, alpresentar cuatro requisitos esenciales y 17 requisitos deseables, salvo P. leioghnathi que no cumple con dos de los requisitos esencialesque son la CI50 para los tóxicos de referencia y el intervalo de confianza. En los modelos animales, vegetales y bacteriano se observaron diferentes niveles de sensibilidad a la entrada y salida de los sistemas de potabilización. Conclusiones. H. attenuata, P. subcapitata y P.leioghnathi fueron los organismos más eficaces para detectar la toxicidad en los afluentes y D. magna, P. subcapitata y P. leioghnathien los efluentes...
Objective. The assessment of water quality includes the analysis of both physical-chemical and microbiological parameters. However,none of these evaluates the biological effect that can be generated in ecosystems or humans. In order to define the most suitable organismsto evaluate the toxicity in the affluent and effluent of three drinking-water treatment plants, five acute toxicity bioassays were used,incorporating three taxonomic groups of the food chain. Materials and methods. The bioassays used were Daphnia magna and Hydraattenuata as animal models, Lactuca sativa and Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata as plant models, and Photobacterium leioghnathi asbacterial model. To meet this objective, selection criteria of the organisms evaluated and cluster analysis were used to identify the mostsensitive in the affluent and effluent of each plant. Results. All organisms are potentially useful in the assessment of water quality bymeeting four essential requirements and 17 desirable requirements equivalent to 100% acceptability, except P. leioghnathi which doesnot meet two essential requirements that are the IC50 for the toxic reference and the confidence interval. The animal, plant and bacterialmodels showed different levels of sensitivity at the entrance and exit of the water treatment systems. Conclusions. H. attenuata, P.subcapitata and P. leioghnathi were the most effective organisms in detecting toxicity levels in the affluents and D. magna, P. subcapitataand P. leioghnathi in the effluents...
Objetivo.A avaliação da qualidade da água inclui a análise dos parâmetros físico-químicos e microbiológicos. No entanto, nenhum destes avalia oefeito a nível biológico que pode ser gerado nos ecossistemas ou no homem. Com o objetivo de definir os organismos mais adequadospara avaliar a toxicidade no afluente e efluente de três estações potabilizadoras, foram utilizados cinco bioensaios de toxicidade aguda,incorporando três grupos taxonômicos da cadeia alimentar. Materiais e métodos. Os bioensaios utilizados foram Daphnia magna eHydra attenuata como modelos animais, Lactuca sativa e Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata como modelos vegetais e Photobacteriumleioghnathi como modelo bacteriano. Para cumprir com este objetivo foram utilizados critérios de seleção dos organismos a avaliare análise de agrupamento (AC), para definir os mais sensíveis nos afluentes e efluentes de cada estação de tratamento. Resultados.Todos os bioensaios são testes potencialmente úteis para avaliar a qualidade da água ao apresentar 4 requisitos essenciais e 17 requisitosdesejáveis; exceto P. leioghnathi que não cumpre com dois dos requisitos essenciais: com o CI50 para substâncias tóxicas de referência ecom o intervalo de confiança. Nos modelos animais, vegetais e bacteriano, foram observados níveis diferentes de sensibilidade à entradae à saída dos sistemas de potabilização. Conclusões. H. attenuata, P. subcapitata e P. leioghnathi foram os organismos mais eficazesna detecção de toxicidade em afluentes e D. magna, P. subcapitata e P. leioghnathi nos efluentes...