Association of Rhizophora mangle and ascorbic acid in hydrogels: Evaluation of cytotoxic and immunomodulatory effects

Abstract Polyphenolics from Rhizophora mangle (R. mangle) have shown wound healing and anti- inflammatory effects that may be potentiated by being associated with ascorbic acid, an important substance for collagen and elastin synthesis that plays a role in tissue repair. In our study, we aimed to formulate an association of R. mangle and ascorbic acid in hydrogels and evaluate the association's cytotoxic and immunomodulatory effects. In a pre-formulation study, three gelling polymers (i.e.xanthan gum, poloxamer and hydroxyethyl cellulose) were tested. The selected polymer (i.e. xanthan gum) was used to evaluate cytotoxic and immunomodulatory effects using flow cytometry. Xanthan gum (1.5%) had a homogeneous appearance, an orange colour, a smooth surface, intense brightness and the typical odour, as well as non-Newtonian pseudoplastic behaviour. With a pH of 5.0-5.3 and a non-cytotoxic profile, xanthan gum induced the proliferation and activation of CD4 +, CD8+ and NK T lymphocytes and the production of IL- 2, IL-4, IL-10, IL-17 and TNF-α cytokines in stimulated splenocytes. The results suggest that the association of R. mangle and ascorbic acid in 1.5% xanthan gum hydrogel may be promising in preparations for wound-healing processes.

Effective Atomic Number based on Energy Dispersive X-Ray (EDX) Analysis and Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen (CHN) Analysis for Phantom Material in Medical Physics Applications

@#Introduction: In medical physics applications, effective atomic numbers are often employed to set apart and specify the interaction of ionizing radiation with matter. Methods: The effective atomic number of soy-lignin bonded with Rhizophora spp. particleboards were analyzed using Energy Dispersive X-ray analysis and Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Analyzer. The effective atomic number were compared and recorded with reference to the effective atomic value of water. Results: The result showed that the effective atomic number calculated for adhesive bound Rhizophora spp. samples were close to effective atomic value of water, with 3.34 – 3.47 % differences by using Energy Dispersive X-ray and 6.47 – 6.78 % differences by using Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen analysis. The result revealed that through Energy Dispersive X-ray method, the effective atomic number was much closer to water compared to Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen analysis. Conclusion: Despite the availability of hydrogen content in the samples in Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen analysis, Energy Dispersive X-ray method was much more preferred and gave better result compared to Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen analysis thus provide a compelling argument for the use of Energy Dispersive X-ray method to measure the effective atomic number of Rhizophora spp. particleboard in medical physics applications.

Dosimetric Study of Rhizophora Spp. Particle Board Using Gafchromic XRQA2 Film

@#Introduction: Various phantom with varied materials has been proposed to replace the human body. Besides, there is always a demand to use the local material as a phantom material, which is readily available and inexpensive. Wood is usually preferred because it is multifunction, environmentally friendly, low in toxic, inexpensive, as well as easy to use and prepare. Previous studies have found that Rhizophora spp. is a suitable natural source material and has been suggested due to its comparable dosimetric properties to commercial phantom. Methods: In this study, fabricated Rhizophora spp. particleboards phantom was opted as a solid-equivalent phantom medium at low energy photon beams using Gafchromic film x-ray quality assurance 2 (XRQA2). Additionally, the characteristics of XRQA2 film in the diagnostic energy range were generated. Results: Interestingly, the density of the fabricated Rhizophora spp particleboards was observed to have the same density with the water equivalent material (ρ= 1.00 g.cm-3) and has shown to have loosened agreement with PDD of water phantom at approximately 25% of the dose error. Also, further analysis using XRQA 2 film showed that energy was independent at different ranges. Conclusion: The analysis of fabricated Rhizophora spp particleboards undertaken here has extended our knowledge of the possibility of manufacturing cost-effective water equivalent phantom by using binder-less particleboard from Rhizophora spp. Therefore, a definite need for smaller interspacing particles should be considered to elevate the potential of Rhizophora spp particle boards as water equivalent materials.

Diterpenes and a new benzaldehyde from the mangrove plant Rhizophora mangle

ABSTRACT This work describes the isolation, by high-speed counter-current chromatography, of the diterpenes manool, jhanol and steviol and the benzaldehyde p-oxy-2-ethylhexyl benzaldehyde from the stilt roots hexane extract of the mangrove plant Rhizophora mangle L., Rhizophoraceae. For this, a non-aqueous biphasic solvent system composed of hexane–acetonitrile–methanol 1:1:0.5 (v/v/v) was applied. As far as we know, only steviol was previously isolated in Rhizophoraceae and this is the first time that p-oxy-2-ethylhexyl benzaldehyde is reported.

SOIL-PLANT NUTRIENT INTERACTIONS IN TWO MANGROVE AREAS AT SOUTHERN BRAZIL / Interacciones de nutrientes entre suelo y planta en dos áreas de manglares en el sur de Brasil / Interação entre a composição química de solo e planta em dois manguezais no sul do Brasil

Mangrove forests have a simple architecture. They shelter a few number of arboreal species that grow in a saline environment subject to tidal activity. The research objective was to evaluate possible interactions between physical-chemical soil attributes and plant-leaf nutrient concentrations of different mangrove species. Different mangrove species growing in the same soil, and the same mangrove species growing in two different soil classes were evaluated as to their leaf nutrient concentration patterns. The study was carried out in mangrove areas of the State of Paraná, southern Brazil, in two distinct soil classes: HISTOSOL THIOMORPHIC Salic sodic and GLEYSOL THIOMORPHIC Salic sodic; and three different species: Avicennia schaueriana, Laguncularia racemosa and Rhizophora mangle. Two subareas were delimited within each area from which soil and leaf samples were collected. Samplings from five individuals of each dominant mangrove species were taken from the soil (0-10 cm deep) under each tree crown projection. The data was submitted to statistical analysis using a set of simple and multivariate analysis in order to determine possible differences among mangrove species leaf nutrient concentrations, and whether these differences might be correlated with the soil attributes or not. The results exposed that the nutritional state of the mangrove species is different and independent form the soil attributes in which they grow. Few correlations were found among leaf nutrient concentrations and soil attributes, suggesting differential selective nutrient uptake among species.

Los manglares son bosques de arquitectura simple que albergan pocas especies arbóreas, creciendo en un ambiente salino sometido a la influencia de las mareas. El objetivo de este trabajo fue evaluar las posibles interacciones entre las propiedades fisicoquímicas del suelo y la concentración de nutrientes en hojas de diferentes especies de mangle. Se investigó si las diferentes especies que se desarrollan en la misma clase de suelo tienen concentraciones de nutrientes foliares similares, y si las plantas de mangles de la misma especie que se desarrollan en diferentes tipos de suelos tienen concentraciones foliares similares. El estudio se desarrolló en manglares del Estado de Paraná, sur de Brasil, en dos tipos de suelos diferentes (HISTOSOL TIÓNICO Salino sódico y GLEYSOL TIÓNICO Salino sódico). Se analizaron tres especies vegetales diferentes (Avicennia schaueriana, Laguncularia racemosa y Rhizophora mangle). En cada área se delimitaron dos subáreas para recolectar el suelo y las hojas de cada una de las especies. Se tomaron cinco individuos de cada especie del dosel dominante para recoger hojas y muestras de suelo de 0-10 cm, en la proyección de la copa de los árboles seleccionados. Se realizaron análisis univariados y multivariados para probar si las especies de mangle tienen perfiles nutricionales diferentes, y si existe alguna correlación entre las propiedades del suelo con la composición química de las hojas. Los resultados mostraron que el estado nutricional de las especies de mangle es distinto e independiente de los atributos de los suelos en los que se encuentran. Las concentraciones de elementos en las hojas presentan poca correlación con los nutrientes del suelo, lo que sugiere que la absorción de nutrientes por las plantas es selectiva.

Manguezais são florestas de arquitetura simples, abrigando poucas espécies arbóreas, vegetando em ambiente salino e sujeito ao regime de marés. O objetivo desta pesquisa foi avaliar as possíveis interações entre os atributos físico-químicos do solo e a concentração de nutrientes nas folhas de diferentes espécies de mangue. Assim, foi investigado se as diferentes espécies que se desenvolvem sobre a mesma classe de solo apresentam concentrações de nutrientes foliares similares, e se plantas de mangue da mesma espécie que ocorrem sobre diferentes classes de solo apresentam concentrações de nutrientes foliares similares. O estudo foi desenvolvido em manguezais no Estado do Paraná, Sul do Brasil, em duas classes distintas de solo (ORGANOSSOLO TIOMÓRFICO Sálico sódico e GLEISSOLO TIOMÓRFICO Sálico sódico), e três espécies diferentes de plantas (Avicennia schaueriana, Laguncularia racemosa and Rhizophora mangle). Em cada área foram delimitadas duas subáreas para coleta de solo e folhas das espécies. Cinco indivíduos do dossel dominante de cada espécie para coleta de folhas, na projeção da copa das árvores, e amostras de solo de 0-10 cm foram selecionados. Para testar se espécies de mangue apresentam perfis nutricionais distintos e se há correlação entre os atributos do solo com a composição química foliar um conjunto de análises univariadas multivariadas foram realizadas. Os resultados demonstraram que o estado nutricional das plantas é distinto e individualizado, independente dos atributos do solo em que se encontram as espécies. As concentrações dos elementos nas folhas pouco se correlacionaram com os nutrientes do solo, sugerindo absorção seletiva dos nutrientes pelas plantas.

Distribution of Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn in Two Mangroves of Southern Brazil

ABSTRACT This study assessed the relation between Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn in the soils of the mangroves of Antonina and Guaratuba, on the coastline of the State of Paraná, and in the leaf tissues of A. shauerianaR. mangle, and L. racemosa through the analysis of correlation levels between these two compartments. Leaf samples were collected for ten individuals of each species in a 1000 m2 area delimited in each mangrove. Soil samples from 0-10 cm depth were taken from under the crown projection area of the selected trees to be submitted to chemical analysis. In the soils, metallic micronutrients presented the following order: Fe > Mn > Zn > Cu. In the leaves, concentrations were species dependent. InA. shaueriana and R. mangle, the profile was Mn > Fe > Zn > Cu, while in L. racemosa, the sequence was: Fe > Mn > Zn > Cu. Correlation analyses revealed only four significant correlations for Mn, Zn, and Cu in the soil and plant compartments. These results suggested that significant correlations depended on abiotic factors, inhibition between the elements, and immobilization and/or adsorptions of these metals by the soil.

Paleoambientes de Rhizophora mangle (Rhizophoraceae) en Castilletes, Alta Guajira, Venezuela según las paleoconchas de Crassostrea rhizophorae (Ostreoida: Ostreidae)

Los conchales constituyen un rasgo muy característico de las adaptaciones humanas a los ambientes litorales. Analizar su composición y su variabilidad puede brindar indicios en cuanto a la subsistencia de antiguas poblaciones humanas, procesos de formación e información sobre cambios en el ambiente. Este estudio evaluó el uso de paleoconchas halladas en conchales para inferir las condiciones paleoambientales de un bosque de manglar. Datos de paleoconchas de conchales ubicados en Castilletes-Alta Guajira, Venezuela fueron datados en 3 580 ± 30 años A.P, se incluyeron datos de conchas actuales provenientes de la Laguna de Cocinetas (Castilletes) y de isla Maracas (Lago de Maracaibo). Se examinaron un total de 185 muestras con marcas de fijación de la raíz de mangle, paleoconchas (n = 109) y conchas actuales (n = 76) de C. rhizophorae. Posteriormente, se estimaron los diámetros de las paleoraíces y de las raíces actuales a través de un modelo geométrico utilizando la huella de fijación de la concha. Para validar el modelo se midieron directamente los diámetros de las raíces actuales. Adicionalmente se realizó un estudio fisionómico en los bosques de ambas localidades de estudio, para asociar la estructura del bosque, con el diámetro de las raíces y la información de las conchas. Los resultados mostraron que no hay diferencias significativas entre los diámetros de las raíces obtenidas por el modelo geométrico y los diámetros de las raíces medidas directamente (Castilletes P = 0.160854; Maracas P = 0.617271). Las mediciones de las conchas mostraron que las paleoconchas son más largas que las conchas modernas. Los diámetros de las paleoraíces no mostraron diferencias significativas con las raíces del bosque actual de Castilletes (zona expuesta) P = 0.303518, contrastando con los diámetros de las raíces de isla Maracas (zona protegida) (P = 0.017771). El estudio fisionómico mostro que el bosque actual de Castilletes tiene un DAP y una altura (11.10 y 4.90 m respectivamente) menor que Maracas (34.86 cm y 10.62 m), respondiendo a la exposición a los vientos. Se determinó que el paleobosque y el bosque actual de Castilletes tienen características similares asociadas con ambientes áridos, con fuerte exposición a los vientos. Se concluye que el análisis de las huellas de fijación de las paleoconchas es un método novedoso y de bajo costro que permite obtener información sobre el paleoambiente de los bosques de R. mangle.

Shell middens are a very characteristic feature of coastal human adaptations. Component and variability analysis offer clues to subsistence of ancient human populations, formation processes and information of environmental changes. In this study, we tested the use of paleoshells found in shell midden to infer paleoenviroment conditions of R. mangle forest. We presented data of paleoshells from shell middens, located on Castilletes-Alta Guajira, Venezuela, dated from 3 580 ± 30 años B.P years, and we included data of actual shells from mangrove forests located on Cocinetas laggon (Castilletes) and Maracas Island (Maracaibo lagoon). We examined 185 samples of fixing traces marked by mangrove roots on paleoshells (n = 109) and actual shells (n = 76) of C. rhizophorae. Subsequently, we estimated paleoroot and modern root diameter using a geometric model using shell's trace. To validate this model, we directly measured modern roots. Furthermore, a physiognomic study was made in both sites to associate mangrove forest with roots diameter and shells information. Results showed that there were no significant differences between estimated root diameter values obtained from traces of modern shells and the ones recorded by direct measurement of roots (Castilletes P = 0.160854; Maracas P = 0.617271); allowing the use of geometric model to obtain estimated values of paleoroots. Shell measurements showed that paleoshells were larger than modern shells. Paleoroot diameters showed no significant differences with modern Castilletes's mangrove roots (exposed zone) (P = 0.303518), contrasting with Maracas's roots (protected zone) (P = 0.017771). Physiognomic study showed that modern Castilletes forests had diameter at breast height (DBH) and tree height (11.10 m and 4.90 m, respectively) lower than Maracas (34.86 cm and 10.62 m), responding to the wind exposure and salinity. Diameters and quantity of roots per tree were higher in Castilletes (3.01 cm y 11 roots/tree) than Maracas (2.39 cm y 7 roots/tree). We determined that paleoforests and modern forests from Castilletes have similar characteristics associated to arid environment with stronger wind exposition. We concluded that paleoshells trace analysis is a low cost and novel method that allows obtaining information about paleoenvironment of R. mangle forests.

Myxomycetes from mangroves: species occurring in the state of Maranhão, northeastern Brazil

Abstract Mangrove swamps and forests cover over 137,000 km2 distributed latitudinally among subtropical zones, 7% of which are in Brazil, with a greater density in the countrys northernmost region. Considering that the community of Myxomycetes recorded for this environment is hardly known, three areas located in the state of Maranhão were investigated. Two field trips were conducted, one at the beginning of the rainy season and another during the dry season. In each area, two plots (125 m2) equidistant 100 m apart from each other were surveyed. In these areas, standing dead tree trunks and dead branches still attached to the mother plant that were above the tideline, were examined. On these same occasions, samples of the aerial litter and from the cortex of living trees (Rhizophora) were collected for the preparation of moist chambers cultures. Twenty-one specimens were obtained from field and moist chambers, belonging to 11 species, distributed in nine genera and five families. Seven species are new records from Maranhão. There was a predominance of r-strategist (73%) over K-strategist (27%) species. Cribraria violacea, Comatricha tenerrima, Echinostelium minutum, and Fuligo septica are new worldwide records from mangrove environments, and Oligonema flavidum is reported for the first time from Brazil.

Resumo Os manguezais ocupam mais de 137.000 km2, distribuídos latitudinalmente entre as zonas subtropicais e 7% encontra-se no Brasil, com maior densidade entre os estados do Pará e Maranhão, na região norte do país. Considerando que a comunidade de mixomicetos registrada para este ambiente é pouco conhecida, três áreas localizadas no estado do Maranhão foram investigadas. Duas excursões foram realizadas, uma no início da estação chuvosa e outra na estiagem. Em cada área, foram georeferenciadas e exploradas duas parcelas (125 m2) equidistantes 100 m uma da outra foram avaliadas. Nestas, foram explorados troncos mortos em pé e galhos mortos ainda presos à planta-mãe, acima da linha da maré. Nas mesmas ocasiões foram coletadas amostras de folhedo aéreo e córtex de árvores vivas (Rhizophora) para montagem de câmaras-úmidas. Foram obtidos 21 espécimes de campo e câmara-úmida, pertencentes a 11 espécies, distribuídas em nove gêneros e cinco famílias. Sete espécies são novos registros para o Maranhão. Predominaram espécies r-estrategistas (73%), e 27% K-estrategistas. Cribraria violacea, Comatricha tenerrima, Echinostelium minutum e Fuligo septica são novos registros para o ambiente de manguezal, e Oligonema flavidum é registrada pela primeira vez no Brasil.

Myxomycetes from mangroves: species occurring in the state of Maranhão, northeastern Brazil / Myxomycetes em manguezais: espécies ocorrentes no estado do Maranhão, nordeste do Brasil

Abstract Mangrove swamps and forests cover over 137,000 km2 distributed latitudinally among subtropical zones, 7% of which are in Brazil, with a greater density in the country’s northernmost region. Considering that the community of Myxomycetes recorded for this environment is hardly known, three areas located in the state of Maranhão were investigated. Two field trips were conducted, one at the beginning of the rainy season and another during the dry season. In each area, two plots (125 m2) equidistant 100 m apart from each other were surveyed. In these areas, standing dead tree trunks and dead branches still attached to the mother plant that were above the tideline, were examined. On these same occasions, samples of the aerial litter and from the cortex of living trees (Rhizophora) were collected for the preparation of moist chambers cultures. Twenty-one specimens were obtained from field and moist chambers, belonging to 11 species, distributed in nine genera and five families. Seven species are new records from Maranhão. There was a predominance of r-strategist (73%) over K-strategist (27%) species. Cribraria violacea, Comatricha tenerrima, Echinostelium minutum, and Fuligo septica are new worldwide records from mangrove environments, and Oligonema flavidum is reported for the first time from Brazil.

Resumo Os manguezais ocupam mais de 137.000 km2, distribuídos latitudinalmente entre as zonas subtropicais e 7% encontra-se no Brasil, com maior densidade entre os estados do Pará e Maranhão, na região norte do país. Considerando que a comunidade de mixomicetos registrada para este ambiente é pouco conhecida, três áreas localizadas no estado do Maranhão foram investigadas. Duas excursões foram realizadas, uma no início da estação chuvosa e outra na estiagem. Em cada área, foram georeferenciadas e exploradas duas parcelas (125 m2) equidistantes 100 m uma da outra foram avaliadas. Nestas, foram explorados troncos mortos em pé e galhos mortos ainda presos à planta-mãe, acima da linha da maré. Nas mesmas ocasiões foram coletadas amostras de folhedo aéreo e córtex de árvores vivas (Rhizophora) para montagem de câmaras-úmidas. Foram obtidos 21 espécimes de campo e câmara-úmida, pertencentes a 11 espécies, distribuídas em nove gêneros e cinco famílias. Sete espécies são novos registros para o Maranhão. Predominaram espécies r-estrategistas (73%), e 27% K-estrategistas. Cribraria violacea, Comatricha tenerrima, Echinostelium minutum e Fuligo septica são novos registros para o ambiente de manguezal, e Oligonema flavidum é registrada pela primeira vez no Brasil.

Capacidad de regeneración natural del bosque de manglar del Estero Tortuga, Osa, Puntarenas, Costa Rica / Natural regeneration capacity of the mangrove forest of Tortuga Estuary, Osa, Puntarenas, Costa Rica

Resumen Este estudio se realizó entre Febrero 2011 y Enero 2012, en el bosque de mangle del Estero Tortuga. Se establecieron un total de seis parcelas, de 9 m2 cada una, con el fin de evaluar el porcentaje de supervivencia y la tasa de crecimiento de las plántulas de Rhizophora racemosa (G. Mey.) y Pelliciera rhizophorae (Triana & Planch.). Al final del estudio todas las parcelas presentaron un 100% de mortalidad, lo que indica que la zona no está reclutando árboles jóvenes y por lo tanto no se está regenerando naturalmente. Los resultados de este estudio sugieren que la baja influencia de la marea, la baja salinidad del manto freático y la alta tasa de deposición de sedimentos, son las causas de la nula supervivencia de las plántulas y del deterioro de los individuos adultos. Se realizó un análisis comparativo de las zonas de manglar declaradas Patrimonio Natural de Estado y el ecosistema de manglar del Estero Tortuga, el cual muestra que existen áreas que no se encuentran protegidas bajo esta categoría. Se recomienda actualizar esta información con el fin de contar con un registro preciso sobre la ubicación de los manglares de la zona. Además, es prioritario que se aborde el manejo de la cuenca Térraba Sierpe, con el fin de disminuir la cantidad de sedimentos que se depositan en los manglares de la zona.

Abstract The study was conducted from February 2011 to January 2012, in the mangrove forest of Tortuga Estuary. A total of six parcels, each measuring 9m2, were established in the area, to evaluate the survival and growth rates of the mangrove seedlings. By the end of the study all parcels presented 100% mortality, indicating that the area is not recruiting young trees and therefore is not regenerating naturally. The results of this study suggest that the low salinity of the water table and the high rate of deposition of sediments, are the causes of the low survival rate of the seedlings and could also be affecting the adult individuals. The adult trees presented deteriorated health signs such as decomposition of their stilt roots and total loss of foliage. The borders of this ecosystem were georeferenced and compared with the official map that declares the Natural Patrimony of the Country, to determine areas that should be protected under this category. In general the mangrove forest of this estuary can be divided in two zones: the first one is characterized by a mature forest of mainly two species: Rhizophora racemosa (G. Mey.) and Pelliciera rhizophorae (Triana & Planch.). The second one is located in the banks of sand of the estuary, where the dominant specie is Laguncularia racemosa (C.F. Gaertn) in young stages. Both of these areas include mangrove ecosystems that are not included in the Natural Patrimony category. Rev. Biol. Trop. 63 (Suppl. 1): 209-218. Epub 2015 April 01.

Complejidad estructural de los manglares de Playa Blanca, Escondido y Rincón de Osa, Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica / Structural complexity of mangroves in Playa Blanca, Escondido and Rincón de Osa, Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica

Resumen Este estudio reporta las características estructurales y distribución de las especies en los bosques de mangle de Playa Blanca, Escondido y Rincón en Golfo Dulce, Pacífico Sur de Costa Rica. Se realizaron múltiples transectos en cada uno de los manglares. Cada 10m a lo largo de cada transecto se delimitaron parcelas cuadradas de 5x5m. En cada parcela se midió el diámetro a la altura del pecho y altura de los árboles de mangle y se tomaron muestras de sedimento y de agua intersticial (salinidad). Se determinó la densidad total y por especie para cada manglar, el área basal y valor de importancia por especie y la complejidad general entre los manglares. Las especies dominantes en los tres manglares estudiados fueron Rhizophora racemosa y Pelliciera rhizophorae. Los manglares de Playa Blanca y Rincón presentaron mayor similitud en la estructura del bosque entre sí que con el manglar de Escondido. Playa Blanca fue el bosque de mayor altura del dosel y menor densidad; mientras que Escondido presentó mayor densidad y menor altura, así como el menor número de especies y el único donde se encontró la especie Conocarpus erectus. La composición de especies presente en estos manglares coincide con la reportada para la región. Sin embargo, la variación en estructura y complejidad entre los tres manglares es mayor a las similitudes con otros de la región. El estudio histórico y topográfico de estos manglares puede aclarar las variaciones en estructura y complejidad encontrada actualmente entre ellos.

Abstract This study reports the structural characteristics and distribution of species in the mangrove forests of Playa Blanca, Escondido and Rincón de Osa in Golfo Dulce, South Pacific of Costa Rica. Multiple lineal transects were carried out at each of the mangrove forests. Every 10 meters along each transect the diameter at breast height, basal area, and height was determined for all mangrove trees within a 5x5meter square plot. Sediment and interstitial water (salinity) samples were also collected at each plot. Total density of the stand was determined, as were the density of each mangrove species, the importance value and basal area per species, and general complexity indices for each mangrove forest. The dominant species at all three mangroves were Rhizophora racemosa and Pelliciera rhizophorae. Forest structure was more similar between Playa Blanca and Rincón mangroves than with Escondido. Playa Blanca was the forest with the tallest canopy height and lowest density, while Escondido had the highest density and the shortest canopy height. Escondido was also the forest with the least number of species and the only one where Conocarpus erectus was present. Species composition and dominance at these mangroves coincides with that reported for the region. However, the variation in structure and complexity among the three mangroves is greater than the commonalities with mangroves in the region. Topographical and historical analysis of these mangroves could further elucidate the present structure and complexity variation among them. Rev. Biol. Trop. 63 (Suppl. 1): 199-208. Epub 2015 April 01.

La relación entre peltigera sp. y rhizophora magle en arroyo de plata (Bolívar), caribe Colombiano / The relationhip between peltigera sp. and rhizophora manglein arroyo de pllata (bolivar), Colombian caribbean region

Objetivo: determinar la distribución y el estado de los rodales de manglar en Arroyo de Plata (Departamento de Bolívar). Metodología: se realizaron labores de campo a través del arbolado, mediante el muestreo biológico de la flora y de los parámetros físicos y químicos del agua y de los suelos a lo largo de transectos dentro del bosque. Resultados: la composición del rodal incluye cinco especies, Rhizophora mangle (mangle rojo, colorao o colorado), Avicennia germinans (mangle salado, prieto, negro o iguanero), Laguncularia racemosa (mangle blanco, amarillo o bobo), Conocarpus erecta (mangle zaragoza) y Pelliciera rhizophorae (mangle piñuelo). Asociado a la especie pionera (R. mangle) se encontró el líquen (Peltigera sp.), cuya relación se lleva a cabo solo cuando el mangle está en estado de degradación y los parámetros fisicoquímicos de las aguas y los suelos, son extremos. Conclusión: Los manglares mostraron características mixtas, tipo maduro ribereño y de cuenca, donde la especie invasora P. rhizophorae presenta el mayor IVI, debido a su alta densidad. El registro de los líquenes Peltigera sp. y su presencia en los manglares del Caribe colombiano no solo es el primero para esta Región, su distribución puede estar restringida a la zona costera, es incidental, y demuestra su gran capacidad de adaptación a los cambios ambientales, y puede ser considerada entre los en bio-indicadores de las características ambientales, especialmente de las alteraciones actuales de los suelos y las aguas.

Objective: To determine the distribution and status of mangrove stands in Arroyo de Plata (Department of Bolívar). Methodology: Field work was conducted through woodland, using biological sampling of the flora and the physical and chemical parameters of water and soil along transects within the forest. Results: The composition of the stand includes five species, Rhizophoramangle (red, colorao or colorado mangrove), Avicenniagerminans (salty, dark color, black or iguanero mangle) Laguncularia racemosa (white, yellow or bobo mangrove), Conocarpus erecta (zaragoza mangle) and Pelliciera rhizophorae (tea mangrove). The lichen (Peltigera sp), was found associated with the pioneer species (R. mangrove) whose relationship is carried out only when the mangrove is in a state of degradation and the physical-chemical parameters of water and soil, are extreme. Conclusion: Mangroves showed mature coastal basin type mixed characteristics, where the invasive species P. rhizophorae has the highest IVI due to its high density. Registration of Peltigera sp lichens and its presence of the Colombian Caribbean mangrove is not only the first for this region, its distribution may be restricted to the coastal zone, it is incidental and demonstrates its ability to adapt to environmental changes, and can be considered between the bio-indicators of environmental characteristics, especially of the the current alterations of soil and water.

Phenol content, antioxidant and tyrosinase inhibitory activity of mangrove plants in Micronesia

OBJECTIVE@#To find out and compare the in vitro antioxidant and tyrosinase inhibitory activities of two species of mangrove plants.@*METHODS@#Mangrove samples were harvested at the shoreline on the island of Weno, Chuuk State in Micronesia. The phenol content, antioxidant activity (based on DPPH-free radical scavenging) and tyrosinase inhibitory activity in different tissues (leaves, barks and roots) of Rhizophora stylosa (R. stylosa) and Sonneratia alba (S. alba), collected from the island of Weno.@*RESULTS@#Total phenol content ranged from 4.87 to 11.96 mg per g of freeze dried samples. The highest antioxidant activity was observed in R. stylosa bark (85.5%). The highest tyrosinase inhibitory activity was found in S. alba bark. Also, total phenol content and antioxidant activity were higher in methanol extracts than in aqueous extracts.@*CONCLUSIONS@#Taken together, the results of this study proved that mangroves can be excellent sources of antioxidant compounds.

Crescimento de mudas de mangue sob diferentes níveis de sombreamento na península de Ajuruteua, Bragança, Pará / Growth of mangrove seedlings under different levels of shading at the Peninsula of Ajuruteua, Bragança, Pará

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of different levels of shading on the development of seedlings of three mangrove species (Avicennia germinans (L.) Stearn., Rhizophora mangle L. and Laguncularia racemosa (L.) Gaertn. f.). The experiment was conducted at the community of Tamatateua, Ajuruteua peninsula, Bragança, PA, Brazil. For seedling production, the propagules and seeds of the mangrove species were planted in polyethylene bags (17 x 27 cm), filled with a typical mangrove substrate. The seedlings of the three species were grown under full sun (0), 30% and 60% shading, in a completely randomized design, a 3 x 3 factorial (three species and three shading levels), with eight seedlings per replication. After nine months under shading, plant samples were taken. The variables evaluated were: the shoot/height ratio, stem diameter, shoot dry matter, stem mass, root dry matter, total dry mass matter and morphological indices. Growth of seedlings of R. mangle occurred at all light levels. Seedlings of A. germinans grew faster at full sun and at 30% shading. Whereas, seedlings of L. racemosa were able to grow at 30 and 60% shading, but they also grew faster at full sunlight.

O objetivo do estudo foi avaliar a influência de diferentes níveis de sombreamento sobre o desenvolvimento de mudas das espécies arbóreas de mangue Avicennia germinans (L.) Stearn., Rhizophora mangle L. e Laguncularia racemosa (L.) Gaertn. f. O experimento foi conduzido na comunidade de Tamatateua, na península de Ajuruteua, município de Bragança. Para a produção das mudas, os propágulos das espécies arbóreas de mangue foram semeados em embalagens de polietileno (17 x 27 cm), preenchidas com substrato típico de manguezal. As mudas das três espécies foram testadas a pleno sol, 30% e 60% de sombreamento em delineamento experimental inteiramente casualizado em esquema fatorial (3 x 3) x 3 (3 espécies arbóreas e 3 níveis de sombreamento). Após as plantas atingirem a idade de nove meses, retiraram-se amostras de oito mudas por repetição de cada tratamento. As variáveis avaliadas foram: altura da parte aérea, diâmetro do coleto, massa da parte aérea, massa seca do caule, matéria seca das raízes e matéria seca total e índices morfológicos. O crescimento das mudas de R. mangle ocorreu em todos os níveis de luminosidade. As mudas de A. germinans apresentaram maior crescimento a pleno sol e a 30% de sombreamento. Já as mudas de L. racemosa foram tolerantes a 30% e 60% de sombra, mas se desenvolveram melhor a pleno sol.

Respuesta de la regeneración natural en manglares del Golfo de Urabá (Colombia) a la variabilidad ambiental y climática intra-anual / Natural regeneration response in mangroves of the Gulf of Urabá (Colombia) to the environmental and intra-annual climate variability

The natural regeneration process allows the mangrove forests remain over time. Both, biological and physical factors can affect the establishment and early stages along the development of trees. This study examined the response of natural regeneration of mangroves in the Turbo River delta and El Uno bay (Urabá Gulf, Colombia) to intra-annual environmental variability. We quantified mortality, survival and recruitment of seedlings of three mangrove species, seasonally during one year, in 72 semi-perma-nent sub-plots of 1m². In the sub-plots, the total height and the diameter at the base of the stem of all mangrove seedlings with basal diameter less than 2.5cm were measured. Damage by herbivores was also recorded to each seedling. While Laguncularia racemosa recorded the highest rates of mortality, Rhizophora mangle showed the highest survival rate during the study period, although Avicennia germinans dominated the natural regeneration. Through a Redundancy Analysis these processes were associated to environmental variables such as: Direct Site Factor-DSF (sunlight), sediments input rate, herbivory, distances from mangroves to the river, to inner lakes, and to the coastline. These variables explained 43% of the natural regeneration variation; sedimentation rate was the most important variable, while light was very representative for the R. mangle survival. Based on historical records of precipitation, Turbo River flow rate and associated sediment loads, it was established that during the highest precipitation peak, the survival of all species decreases and during the dry season, when the conditions of flooding and sediments input were lower, it was improved. The results indicated that the sediments input rates and sunlight play an important role in the survival of natural regeneration of evaluated mangrove species.

En los bosques de mangle, tanto factores biológicos como físicos, afectan el establecimiento y los estados tempranos de desarrollo de los árboles y determinan la distribución espacial de las especies. Se evaluó la respuesta de la regeneración natural de los manglares del delta del río Turbo y la bahía El Uno a la variabilidad ambiental y climática intra-anual. Se cuantificaron la mortalidad, la sobrevivencia y el reclutamiento de las plántulas de tres especies, estacionalmente durante un año. Avicennia germinans dominó la regeneración natural, Rhizophora mangle presentó la mayor la supervivencia y Laguncularia racemosa la mayor mortalidad. Estos procesos se asociaron principalmente con el aporte de sedimentos aluviales, la disponibilidad de luz, la herbivoría, la distancia al río, a las lagunas internas y a la línea de costa, las cuales explicaron el 43% de la variación en la regeneración. La sedimentación fue la variable más importante para el reclutamiento de A. germinans, mientras la luz fue muy representativa para la supervivencia de R. mangle. Con base en registros históricos de precipitación, caudales y carga de sedimentos, se estableció que en la época con mayor precipitación se presenta un descenso en la supervivencia, y en la época seca se favorece el balance entre el reclutamiento y la mortalidad. Los resultados indicaron que la precipitación, el aporte de sedimentos y la luz desempeñan un papel importante en el proceso de la regeneración de las especies evaluadas.

TAXOCENOSIS DE MOLUSCOS Y CRUSTÁCEOS EN RAÍCES DE Rhizophora mangle (RHIZOPHORACEAE) EN LA BAHÍA DE CISPATÁ, CÓRDOBA, COLOMBIA / Taxocenosis of mollusks and crustaceans on roots of Rhizophora mangle (Rhizophoraceae) at Cispatá Bay, Córdoba, Colombia

A pesar del conocimiento existente sobre la ecología de los manglares en la bahía de Cispatá, pocos estudios han sido enfocados en la asociación de invertebrados en las raíces del mangle rojo, por lo que entre diciembre 2010 y septiembre 2011, se caracterizó la taxocenosis de moluscos y crustáceos en raíces de Rhizophora mangle en dos sectores de muestreo de la bahía de Cispatá, Colombia. Para la recolección del material biológico se tomaron al azar tres raíces de mangle homogéneas en cuanto al diámetro. Los moluscos y crustáceos fueron obtenidos de la raíz raspando la superficie con un cuchillo, luego fueron separados y fijados en formalina al 10 % para su posterior identificación hasta especie mediante claves taxonómicas especializadas. De los 12289 individuos recolectados en los cuatro muestreos, 10470 pertenecieron al phylum Mollusca (85,2 %) y los restantes 1819 al subphylum Crustacea (14,8 %). De moluscos se identificaron 14 especies distribuidas en 11 familias y dos clases; Bivalvia y Gastropoda. De crustáceos se identificaron 24 especies distribuidas en 16 familias y cuatro órdenes; Sessillia, Decapoda, Isopoda y Amphipoda. En los dos sectores de muestreo Mytella charruana, Balanus eburneus y Crassostrea rhizophorae fueron las especies más importantes en términos de abundancia, no obstante se sabe que moluscos como M. charruana y B. eburneus presentan una gran capacidad de adaptación y ajuste a las variaciones hidroclimáticas, lo que se reflejó en la dominancia de dichas especies en el sector con mayor influencia del río Sinú. La presencia de los crustáceos Petrolisthes armatus y Aratus pisonii en el sector con más cercanía al mar Caribe, indica que son especies de bosques de manglar con gran movilidad y mecanismos de adaptación fisiológicos.

Despite the existing knowledge on the ecology of mangroves at Cispatá Bay, few studies have focused on the association of invertebrates on red mangrove roots, so between December 2010 and September 2011, it was characterized taxocenosis of mollusks and crustaceans on roots of Rhizophora mangle in two study sites at Cispatá Bay, Colombia. For the collections of biological material were randomly taken three homogeneous mangrove roots in diameter. Mollusks and crustaceans were obtained from the root surface with a scraping knife then were removed and fixed in 10 % formalin for later identification to species using specialized taxonomic keys. Of the 12289 individuals collected in the four samples, 10470 belonged to the phylum Mollusca (85,2 %) and the remaining 1819 to subphylum Crustacea (14,8 %). For mollusks were identified 14 species distributed in 11 families and two classes; Bivalvia and Gastropoda. For crustaceans were identified 24 species distributed in 16 families and four orders; Sessillia, Decapoda, Isopoda and Amphipoda. In both sectors sampling Mytella charruana, Balanus eburneus and Crassostrea rhizophorae were the most important species in terms of abundance, however mollusks like M. charruana and B. eburneus have a great ability to adapt and adjust to changing hydroclimatic, which was reflected in the dominance of these species in the sector with the greatest influence Sinu River. The presence of crustaceans Petrolisthes armatus and Aratus pisonii in the sector with more proximity to the Caribbean Sea indicate that are species with great mobility and physiological adaptation mechanisms.

Efficacy of pyroligneous acid from Rhizophora apiculata on pathogenic Candida albicans.

Rhizophora apiculata pyroligneous acid which is a crude condensate produced from the distillation of smoke generated in the process of charcoal making has the potential to be used as antifungal agent especially to treat candidal infections. In this study, pyroligneous acid (PA), concentrated pyroligneous acid (CPA), Dichloromethane extracts of CPA namely DCM A and B were tested against four pathogenic strains of Candida albicans. The results exhibited significant inhibition zones within the range of 7.00 -8.00 mm for PA, 16.00- 17.00 mm for CPA, 16.00-18.00 mm for DCM A and 19.00-22.00 mm for DCM B. The results also revealed that extract DCM B of CPA was the most potential to be used as anticandidal agent with the minimum inhibitory concentration values between 3.13-6.25 mg/mL. Scanning electron micrographs of DCM B treated C. albicans cells confirmed the damaged cells caused by the extract.

Avaliação da resposta anti-inflamatória intestinal de proantocianidinas de Rhizophora mangle L. no tratamento de colite experimental induzida por ácido tri-nitro-benzeno sulfônico (TNBS) em ratos e dextrana sal sódico (DSS) em camundongos / Evaluation of the intestinal anti-inflammatory response of proanthocyanidins of Rhizophora mangle in the treatment of experimental colitis induced by trinitro benzene sulfonic acid (TNBS) in rats and dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) in mice

As doenças inflamatórias intestinais (DII) compreendem doença de Crohn e reto-colite ulcerativa inespecífica, ambas caracterizadas por processo inflamatório crônico e descontrolado no intestino mediado por células do sistema imune. DII tem sido objeto de extensas pesquisas nos últimos anos; indefinição sobre etiologia e ausência de tratamento eficaz os justificam. Nesse cenário, produtos naturais surgem como alternativas terapêuticas, uma vez que moléculas com atividade farmacológica pronunciada, especialmente compostos fenólicos, têm merecido destaque. Neste trabalho foram avaliadas três frações orgânicas (aquosa – Aq, butanólica – BuOH, e acetato de EtOAc) obtidas a partir das cascas de Rhizophora mangle em modelos experimentais de colite induzida por dextrana sal sódico (DSS) em camundongos e ácido 2,4,6-tri-nitro-benzeno-sulfônico (TNBS) em ratos. BuOH (0.5 e 1.5 mg.Kg-1) e EtOAc (1.5 mg.Kg-1) foram efetivas no modelo de colite por DSS, enquanto BuOH 0.5 mg.K-1 e EtOAc 1.5 mg.Kg-1 mostraram-se eficazes na colite aguda por TNBS. No modelo sub-crônico de colite os tratamentos BuOH e EtOAc reduziram novamente os danos causados pelo TNBS, embora BuOH tenha se mostrado mais eficiente. A avaliação de mediadores envolvidos nesses modelos experimentais mostrou que tanto BuOH quanto EtOAc exercem ação sobre a atividade da glutationa peroxidase (GSH-Px) e mieloperoxidase (MPO) bem como sobre os níveis das citocinas pró-inflamatórias fator de necrose tumoral-α (TNF-α), interferon-γ (IFN-γ), interleucinas 1β, 6 e 12 (IL-1β, IL-6 e IL-12), além de reduzirem a expressão de ciclo-oxigenase-2 (COX-2) no modelo de DSS.

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) comprises Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis, both are characterized by an immune-mediated chronic inflammatory process in the gut. IBD have been studied over the past few years; undefined etiology and the absence of effective treatments justify these studies. In this scenario, natural products arises as therapeutic alternative, once various studies in animal models have shown efficient treatments. Nowadays, molecules with pronounced pharmacological activities, especially phenolic compounds, have been highlighted. In this work three organic fractions (aqueous – Aq, butanolic – BuOH and ethyl acetate – EtOAc) obtained from Rhizophora mangle barks were evaluated in experimental models of dextran sodium sulphate (DSS)-induced colitis in mice and 2,4,6-tri-nitro-benzene sulphonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis in rats. BuOH (0.5 and 1.5 mg.Kg-1) and EtOAc (1.5 mg.Kg-1) were effective in the DSS-induced model, while BuOH (0.5 mg.Kg-1) and EtOAc (1.5 mg.Kg-1) were also effective in acute TNBS-induced model of colitis, which lead to the evaluation of these last ones in sub-chronic TNBS-induced models of colitis. In this model, both treatments reduced the injury provoked by the instillation of TNBS, although BuOH has shown more efficiency. The evaluation of the mediators involved in these experimental models showed that either BuOH as EtOAc act on the glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and myeloperoxidase activities as well as on pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor- (TNF-α), interferon- (IFN-γ) and interleukins -1β, 6 and 12 (IL-1, IL-6 and IL-12) levels, and down-regulation of ciclo-oxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression in the DSS-induced model of colitis.

Estabilidad en anaquel de un gel de Rhizophora mangle L. (mangle rojo) para heridas y quemaduras / Long-term stability of a Rhizophora mangle L. (red mangrove) gel for wounds and burns

Objetivo: evaluar la estabilidad en anaquel de un gel elaborado a partir del extracto acuoso de la corteza de Rhizophora mangle L. (mangle rojo).Métodos: los tres lotes pilotos del gel (GM01, GM02 y GM03) se almacenaron a temperatura de refrigeración (5 ± 3 °C) durante 12 meses. Se realizó una evaluación físico-química y microbiológica a tiempo inicial y a los 3, 6, 9 y 12 meses.Resultados: todos los lotes mantuvieron una apariencia de geles homogéneos, viscosos, libres de grumo, brillantes y de un color pardo-rojizo oscuro y mostraron amplias áreas de extensibilidad. El pH estuvo entre 6 y 7 y la reología fue característica de un fluido no newtoniano del tipo Herschel Bulkley con potencial modificado en todos los tiempos evaluados. Los tres lotes cumplieron el límite microbiano establecido, así como la concentración mínima inhibitoria que estuvo entre 8 y 10 mg/mL y la concentración de taninos entre 13 a 30 mg/g.Conclusiones: se demostró que todos los lotes del gel fueron estables durante el período de estabilidad en anaquel, por lo que se propone que se almacene de 2-8 ºC durante 1 año

Diversity of leaf endophytic fungi in mangrove plants of Northeast Brazil

With the aim of increasing the knowledge about endophytic fungi, a group of microorganisms with high biotechnological potential and a valuable source of useful metabolites, a survey in leaves of mangrove plants (Avicennia schaueriana, Laguncularia racemosa, and Rhizophora mangle) was performed at the Itamaracá Island, PE, Brazil. Leaves were collected, during two seasons, dry and rainy, superficially sterilized and fragments maintained in Petri dishes with Potato dextrose agar (PDA) at 28º ± 2º C until isolation of the fungi. Fourty taxa were isolated: 25 species representing 19 genera and 15 morphotypes determined as Mycelia sterilia. Leaves of L. racemosa hosted the highest number of colony forming units (CFU) and taxa. Guignardia sp. and Colletotrichum gloeosporioides were the most frequently isolated, while Glomerella cingulata was the only species found in association with the three host plants. The proportional importance of each fungus differed among hosts. The similarity of fungi species between the two seasons reached only 4.2%, and that between the hosts was also low, with the maximum (A. schaueriana x L. racemosa) reaching 24.2%. Sphaerosporium, as well as Chloridium virescens var. virescens, Microsphaeropsis arundinis, Penicillium pinophilum, Periconia cambrensis, Phoma herbarum, P. diachenii, P. obscurans, Sordaria prolifica and Torula elisii are reported for the first time as endophytic in tropical regions.