Roles sexuales y salud mental en una muestra de la población general española / Sex roles and mental health in a sample of the general Spanish population

Research on gender differences in health has generally shown that women report higher levels of minor psychiatric morbidity than men. One of the explicative variables for these findings is the different social roles of women and men. Sex role ideology refers to beliefs about appropriate roles for each gender, and is relevant from a psychological point of view because it is associated with self-definition, interactions between men and women and social relations. Most societies consider that women and men are different and consider that they should adopt different roles. These roles determine different social behaviors. Masculinity and femininity refer to feature differences, behaviours and interests assigned by society to each gender. The other two gender role categories proposed by Sandra Bem are androgyny (characterized by the presence of feminine and masculine characteristics) and an undifferentiated sex role (referring to individuals who have low levels of masculine or feminine characteristics). Classic theories on sex typing and gender role differences between women and men have suggested that such differences have been considered as normal and healthy, since they reflect social norms regarding appropriate behaviour in women and men. Furthermore, there is a tendency within mental health professionals who view masculine men and feminine women as normal and healthy. Nevertheless, research on this matter has not provided empirical evidence in relation to such hypotheses. It has also been suggested that reversing gender ideals can be stressful for men and women because such ideals are socially imposed, and therefore, obstruct self-regulation and are connected to the external representation of self-value. The aim of the current study is to find out whether there are mental health differences in a sample of the general Spanish population among the categories of sex role proposed by Sandra Bem. These categories are: masculine, which refers to individuals with high scores in masculinity and low scores in femininity; feminine, which comprises those individuals with high scores in femininity and low scores in masculinity; androgynous, which includes individuals with high scores in masculinity and femininity; and undifferentiated, which gathers those individuals with low scores in masculinity and femininity. The sample included 197 women and 140 men from the general population who voluntarily took part in the study. Participants ranged in age from 17 to 74 years, with a mean of 32.2 years (SD = 12.2), and with different social and demographic characteristics. They were assessed using the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), the Goldberg General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28) and the Self-Esteem Inventory (SEQ). In order to know whether there were any statistically significant differences in health according to sex roles, and whether these interacted with gender, analysis of variance(ANOVA)and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) were performed. The factors in all of them were the four sex role categories (androgynous, masculine, feminine and undifferentiated) and gender (men, women); and the dependent variables were the scores in GHQ-28 in the first group of analysis, and the two self-esteem factors in the second. In the MANOVA where the dependent variables were the four GHQ-28 scales of symptoms, we found that the interaction between sex roles and gender was statistically significant. When performing the analysis independently for each gender, we found that in the male sample there were statistically significant differences only according to sex roles in somatic symptoms. Men with undifferentiated sex roles showed fewer somatic symptoms than men with feminine or androgynous sex roles. In the female sample, we found statistically significant differences according to sex roles in somatic, anxiety and insomnia symptoms. Post hoc analysis with the Bonferroni adjustment showed that statistically significant differences occurred between the female groups with undifferentiated and androgynous sex roles. The latter female group showed fewer somatic, anxiety and insomnia symptoms. The analysis of the differences between women and men in mental health symptoms showed statistically significant differences in somatic, anxiety and insomnia symptoms. Women obtained higher average scores than men. However, there were no statistically significant differences in depressive symptoms nor social dysfunction. When the two factors from the self-esteem questionnaire were considered as dependent variables, the analyses of variance showed that the interaction between sex roles and gender was not statistically significant. Gender main effects were not statistically significant either, however sex role main effects were statistically significant. Post hoc analysis with the Bonferroni adjustment showed that individuals with an undifferentiated sex role evaluated themselves more negatively, and individuals with a masculine sex role evaluated themselves less negatively than those with a feminine sex role. There was no difference in self-confidence between individuals with androgynous sex roles and individuals with a masculine sex role, but both groups showed greater self-confidence than those individuals with feminine or undifferentiated sex roles. The latter group showed less self-confidence than individuals with a feminine sex role. These findings show that sex-typed individuals do not have better mental health or higher self-esteem than androgynous and undifferentiated individuals. Therefore, as in many other studies in other sociocultural settings, our results confirm the lack of empirical evidence for the traditional perspective that masculinity is better for men and femininity is better for women. Our data shows the complexity of relationships between sex roles and health, which depend on gender and on the kind of mental health indicator used. Therefore, while social dysfunction and depressive symptoms seem to be independent from sex role and gender, the effects of sex role on somatic, anxiety and insomnia symptoms were different for women and men. Whereas in the male sample, those with undifferentiated sex roles were the ones showing fewer somatic symptoms, in the women's sample, those with an androgynous sex role were the ones showing less somatic and anxiety and insomnia symptoms compared to those with an undifferentiated sex role. Nevertheless, self-esteem factors showed the highest differences between the various sex role categories. These factors seem to be the same for women and men. For example, we found that individuals with undifferentiated sex roles show higher negative self-worth and lower self-confidence than individuals classified in the other roles. In addition, individuals with a masculine sex role also value themselves less negatively and have higher self-confidence than individuals with a feminine sex role. Lastly, individuals classified in the androgynous sex role have similar self-confidence levels to those with a masculine sex role. The type of mental health symptoms where statistically significant. Differences between women and men are found, these differences were the same as those found in the female sample with regard to sex roles. This seems to indicate the relevance that sex roles have in mental health (in each gender), as some authors have highlighted. However, this study has some limitations to take into account when interpreting the results. Firstly, it is a transversal study, therefore we can talk about association, but not cause-and-effect relations between sex roles and health. Secondly, the sample is not random therefore it is not possible to generalize these results to the population.

Las investigaciones sobre las diferencias de género en salud mental generalmente muestran que los niveles de menor morbilidad psiquiátrica son mayores en las mujeres que en los hombres, siendo una de las variables explicativas de tales diferencias los roles sociales diferenciados en función del sexo. La ideología de los roles sexuales se refiere a las creencias respecto a qué roles son los adecuados para mujeres y hombres. Esto es relevante desde el punto de vista psicológico porque se asocia con la definición de sí-mismo, con las interacciones entre hombres y mujeres y con las relaciones sociales. La mayoría de las sociedades considera que mujeres y hombres son diferentes y deben ocupar roles distintos, por lo que los socializan de forma distinta. Y la masculinidad y la feminidad se refieren a las diferencias en rasgos, conductas e intereses que la sociedad ha asignado a cada uno de los géneros. Las teorías clásicas sobre las diferencias entre mujeres y hombres en roles de género y en tipificación sexual planteaban que tales diferencias eran normales y saludables, ya que reflejaban las normas sociales sobre la conducta apropiada para cada sexo. Además, los profesionales en salud mental tienden a ver a los hombres masculinos y a las mujeres femeninas como normales y sanas. Sin embargo, los resultados de las investigaciones no han aportado evidencia empírica de tales supuestos. Además, recientemente se ha reconocido que la inversión en los ideales de género puede ser estresante para hombres y mujeres porque se trata de ideales impuestos socialmente, dificultan la autorregulación y están relacionados con la representación externa de la autovalía. Pese a ello, la evidencia empírica no es concluyente, habiéndose realizado la mayoría de estudios sobre roles sexuales y salud con muestras anglosajonas, por lo que se desconoce si tal relación se da también en otras culturas. El objetivo del presente trabajo es conocer si existen diferencias en salud mental, en una muestra de la población general española, entre las cuatro opciones de rol sexual propuestas por Sandra Bem: masculinidad, feminidad, androginia e indiferenciación. La muestra estuvo formada por 337 personas de la población general que participaron voluntariamente en el estudio, sus edades oscilaron entre los 17 y 74 años (M = 32.2, SD = 12.2) y presentaron diferentes características sociodemográficas. Las muestras fueron evaluadas con el Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), con el Cuestionario de salud general de Goldberg (GHQ-28) y con el Inventario de autoestima (Self-Esteem Inventory, SEQ). En los resultados encontramos que la asociación entre roles sexuales y salud mental depende del tipo de indicador de salud utilizado. Además, en la sintomatología somática, de ansiedad y de insomnio, también se encontró una relación estrecha con el género. En la muestra de hombres, los clasificados como indiferenciados presentaron menor sintomatología somática respecto a los clasificados como femeninos o como andróginos, mientras que en la muestra de mujeres las clasificadas como indiferenciadas fueron las que tuvieron más síntomas somáticos, de ansiedad e insomnio respecto a las andróginas. El análisis de las diferencias entre mujeres y hombres en sintomatología de salud mental mostró que se daban diferencias estadísticamente significativas en sintomatología somática, de ansiedad e insomnio, teniendo las mujeres puntuaciones medias más altas que los hombres. Sin embargo, no se obtuvieron diferencias estadísticamente significativas en sintomatología depresiva ni en disfunción social. Dichas diferencias coinciden con las obtenidas en la muestra de mujeres al analizar las diferencias en salud mental en función de los roles sexuales. Ello indica la relevancia que los roles sexuales pueden tener en las diferencias de género en salud mental, como han señalado algunos autores. Los resultados de este estudio muestran que el seguimiento de los roles sexuales tradicionales no conllevan a una mejor salud mental. En conclusión, como se ha encontrado en varios estudios realizados en otros entornos socio-culturales nuestros resultados confirman la falta de apoyo empírico para el modelo tradicional en el cual la masculinidad es mejor para los hombres y la feminidad para las mujeres.

A experiência da sexualidade em jovens adultos na França: entre errância e vida conjugal / La experiencia de la sexualidad en jóvenes adultos en Francia: entre errancia y la vida en pareja / The experience of sexuality among French young adults: between wandering and married life

Este estudo se baseia em uma pesquisa qualitativa realizada com 24 estudantes franceses de 18 a 22 anos. No período de transição de suas vidas, rapazes e moças atravessam uma fase de errância, de experimentação afetiva e sexual, ao mesmo tempo em que aspiram a um ideal de vida conjugal. A errância sexual e afetiva constitui a prática e o sentido dados à sua experiência para uma importante parte das pessoas entrevistadas. A vida conjugal ou o estabelecimento de uma relação de casal monogâmica e estável constitui o ideal da maioria dos homens e mulheres entrevistados. A sexualidade é vivida, ao longo desse período de transição, como uma experiência de iniciação, às vezes difícil ou confusa e visa a construção de si e, mais a longo termo, do casal, mais que a uma multiplicação de experiências "recreativas".

This qualitative study was carried out with 24 French students, ages between 18 and 22 years. During this transitional period of their lives, young adults experience a sexual and affective wandering phase, and at the same time, aspire to an ideal married life. Sexual and affective wandering refers to the experience and its meaning for the most part of those interviewed. A married life or establishment of a monogamous stable relationship is the ideal aspired by the majority of men and women interviewed. Sexuality is experienced, throughout this transitional period, as a sometimes difficult and confusing experience of initiation that aims the construction of the self, and in the long term, the construction of the couple, beyond multiple "recreational" experiences.

Este estudio se basa en una investigación cualitativa realizada con 24 estudiantes franceses de 18 a 22 años. En este periodo de transición de sus vidas, los muchachos y las muchachas atraviesan una fase de errancia, de experimentación afectiva y sexual, al mismo tiempo aspirando a un ideal de vida en pareja. La errancia sexual y afectiva constituye la práctica y el sentido dado a su experiencia para una importante parte de las personas entrevistadas. La vida en pareja o, el establecimiento de una relación de pareja monogámica y estable, constituye el ideal de la mayoría de los hombres y de las mujeres entrevistadas. La sexualidad es vivida, a lo largo de este período de transición, como una experiencia de iniciación, a veces difícil o confusa e tiene por objeto la construcción de si y, más a largo plazo, de la pareja, más que una multiplicación de experiencias "recreativas".

Successful hatching from eggs carried by females and naturally removed from incubant males in Belostoma spp. water bugs (Heteroptera: Belostomatidae)

Within Belostomatinae water bug species (Heteroptera, Belostomatidae) it has been hitherto believed that the completion of embryonic development is successful only if eggs are incubated on male hemelytra. Nevertheless, we found egg successful hatching from a back-brooding Belostoma elegans (Mayr) and B. micantulum (Stål) females, as well as from fertilized eggs kicked off from four back-brooder B. elegans males. One "encumbered" B. elongatum Montandon female was also recorded, but eggs did not hatch after she removed them.

Se considera que el desarrollo embrionario y la emergencia de las ninfas de las especies de Belostomatinae (Heteroptera, Belostomatidae) se cumplen con éxito si los huevos son incubados sobre el espacio dorsal de machos adultos. No obstante, hemos registrado eclosiones exitosas a partir de dos hembras grávidas portando huevos sobre su dorso; una de ellas de la especie Belostoma elegans (Mayr), la otra de B. micantulum (Stål). Se registra la eclosión de huevos, previamente removidos del área de postura por los propios machos incubantes de B. elegans (N=4) y la presencia de una hembra de B. elongatum Montandon, portando huevos sobre sus hemiélitros, los cuales no eclosionaron después de haber sido removidos por la propia hembra.