ABSTRACT
La violencia es un problema de salud mental que se ha abordado poco en escolares respecto a sus diferencias por sexo. En particular, la percepción de violencia por escolares es de importancia para el diseño de intervenciones comunitarias en salud mental. Objetivo: Analizar las diferencias en la magnitud de la percepción de violencia según contexto y tipo de exposición por sexo y la asociación con actitudes parentales percibidas por estudiantes de básica de colegios municipales chilenos. Método: Se realizó un diseño transversal en 6879 escolares (45,5 por ciento hombres) de 4-6° básico de escuelas municipales de seis comunas de Chile. Se aplicó un cuestionario que incluyó variables sociodemográficas, la percepción de violencia en el hogar, barrio y colegio (observada y personalmente vivenciada); y actitudes parentales. Se analizaron puntajes y asociación de variables, y además, se realizó análisis de regresión. Resultados: El lugar de mayor percepción de violencia por escolares de ambos sexos es en el colegio. En todos los contextos y tipos de exposición los hombres perciben más violencia que las mujeres (p<0,001). Las mujeres perciben mejores actitudes parentales que los hombres (p<0,05). Se encontraron correlaciones negativas significativas entre percepción de violencia y algunas actitudes parentales como: apoyo emocional otorgado, preocupación por la escuela y por otros aspectos de la vida. Conclusión: La alta frecuencia de percepción de violencia en diversos contextos y las diferencias por sexo encontradas nos abre a una reflexión en perspectiva de género, fundamental para la política pública.(AU)
Violence is a mental health problem. Differences by gender in school children have been scarcely analyzed. In particular, perception of violence by school children is very important to design community mental health interventions. Aim: To analyze gender differences in perception of violence by context and type of exposure, and their association to parental attitudes perceived by children from municipal schools in Chile. Method: A cross sectional design was implemented in 6879 school children from 4th-6th grade of public schools (45.5 percent boys), from six Chilean municipalities of Chile. A questionnaire about sociodemographic variables, perception of violence at school, home, TV and neighbourhood (observed and personally lived) and parental attitudes, was applied. Scores and associations of variables were obtained, and regression analysis was done. Results: A higher perception of violence score was found in the school context by both genders. Boys perceived more violence than girls in every context and type of exposure (p<0.001). Girls perceived better parental attitudes than boys (p<0.05). We found negative, statistically significant correlations between perception of violence and parental attitude such as emotional support given, concern about school activities, and for other issues of children´s life. Conclusion: The finding of high frequency of perceived violence in diverse contexts and the differences by sex suggest further exploration of the gender perspective, as a key aspect for public policy.(AU)
Subject(s)
Humans , Male , Female , Child , Adolescent , Violence , Educational Status , Mental Health , Gender IdentityABSTRACT
A categorização é fundamental para o nosso pensamento, nossa percepção, ação e posicionamento no mundo. Todas as vezes que percebemos algo como um tipo de coisa, ou como parte de alguma coisa, estamos a categorizar e a recorrer ao uso de processos cognitivos. Nessa perspectiva, as novas categorias homoeróticas na contemporaneidade surgem de que axiomas? O que é gay, o que é g0y (g-zero-y) e o que não é? Bem como, qual é a fronteira desses conceitos com o comportamento masculino heteroflexível? São questões instigantes sob o enfoque da cognição, da categorização; e, com base em verificação ontológica, este artigo enfatiza o papel de validação exercido pela "confirmação" e "desconfirmação" das crenças acerca de categorias mais fluidas de comportamentos sexuais masculinos que podem estar externalizados. Nesse âmbito, registra-se que não se encontra na proposição g-zero-y erros sejam no sentido da redundância, de inconsistência interna, de partição ou de circularidade conceptual.
The categorization is basic for our thinking, our perception, action, and positioning in the world. When we perceive something as a kind of thing, or as part of something, we are categorizing and resorting to the use of cognitive processes. In this perspective, from which axioms arise the new homoerotic categories in the contemporaneity? What is gay, what is g0y (g-zero-y) and what is not? As well as, what is the frontier of these concepts with the heteroflexible male behavior? These are intriguing questions at perspective of the cognition processes, of categorization based on the ontological verification this paper emphasizes the role of validation exercised by the 'confirmation' and 'disconfirmation' of the beliefs, about categories more fluids of male sexual behaviors that may be externalized, registering that it is not in the proposition g-zeroy errors are in the conceptual sense of redundancy, internal inconsistency, partition or circularity
La categorización es fundamental para nuestro pensamiento, percepción, acción y posicionamiento en el mundo. Cuando percibimos algo como una especie de cosa, o como parte de algo, estamos categorizando y recurriendo al uso de procesos cognitivos. En esta perspectiva del proceso de categorización, ¿las nuevas categorías homoeróticas de que axiomas surgen? ¿Qué es gay, qué es g0y (g-cero-y) y qué no lo es? Así como, ¿cuál es la frontera con el comportamiento masculino heteroflexible? Estas son preguntas intrigantes en la perspectiva del proceso de la cognición, de la categorización y basado en verificación ontológica, este artículo hace hincapié en el papel de la validación ejercida por la 'confirmación' y la 'desconfirmación' de las creencias, sobre categorías más fluidas de los comportamientos sexuales masculinos que pueden estar externalizados. En conclusión, se registra que no se encuentran en la proposición g-cero-y errores en el sentido de redundancia, inconsistencia interna, partición o circularidad conceptual
Subject(s)
Humans , Homosexuality , Sexual and Gender Minorities , HomosexualityABSTRACT
Esta investigación tiene por objeto identificar las representaciones y estereotipos de género utilizados en los comerciales transmitidos por televisión, así como las posibles relaciones entre estos, las categorías de producto, los roles, el género y el nivel de sexismo de los comerciales. Se diseñó un instrumento basado en la Escala de Sexismo en Publicidad de Pingree, Parker, Butler y Paisley (1976), incorporando además las categorías de análisis de McArthur y Resko (1975), el cual se aplicó en una muestra de 80 comerciales. Los resultados evidencian diferencias en el trato del género dentro de los comerciales, apareciendo más figuras femeninas en escenarios privados (hogar) y masculinas en escenarios públicos. En cuanto al nivel de sexismo, el 48% evidenció alto nivel de sexismo, utilizando estereotipos de mujer sexi y ama de casa, con representaciones femeninas de objeto decorativo o en roles de dependencia.
This research aims to identify the representations and stereotypes that are used in commercial broadcast on television, as well as the possible relationships among these product categories, roles, gender and the level of sexism in commercials. The data-gathering instrument was designed based on the Scale of Sexism in Advertising from Pingree, Parker, Butler and Paisley (1976), which also incorporated the analysis categories defined by McArthur and Resko (1975). This tool was applied in a sample of 80 commercials. The results show differences in the treatment of gender within commercials. Thus, female figures appear in the commercials, which occur in private settings (home), while in the public settings are mostly male figures. Regarding the level of sexism, half of the commercials showed high level of sexism. The most stereotypes are sexy woman and housewife, with representations of women like sex object or in dependency roles.
Subject(s)
Psychology, Social , Sexism , Gender IdentityABSTRACT
Research on gender differences in health has generally shown that women report higher levels of minor psychiatric morbidity than men. One of the explicative variables for these findings is the different social roles of women and men. Sex role ideology refers to beliefs about appropriate roles for each gender, and is relevant from a psychological point of view because it is associated with self-definition, interactions between men and women and social relations. Most societies consider that women and men are different and consider that they should adopt different roles. These roles determine different social behaviors. Masculinity and femininity refer to feature differences, behaviours and interests assigned by society to each gender. The other two gender role categories proposed by Sandra Bem are androgyny (characterized by the presence of feminine and masculine characteristics) and an undifferentiated sex role (referring to individuals who have low levels of masculine or feminine characteristics). Classic theories on sex typing and gender role differences between women and men have suggested that such differences have been considered as normal and healthy, since they reflect social norms regarding appropriate behaviour in women and men. Furthermore, there is a tendency within mental health professionals who view masculine men and feminine women as normal and healthy. Nevertheless, research on this matter has not provided empirical evidence in relation to such hypotheses. It has also been suggested that reversing gender ideals can be stressful for men and women because such ideals are socially imposed, and therefore, obstruct self-regulation and are connected to the external representation of self-value. The aim of the current study is to find out whether there are mental health differences in a sample of the general Spanish population among the categories of sex role proposed by Sandra Bem. These categories are: masculine, which refers to individuals with high scores in masculinity and low scores in femininity; feminine, which comprises those individuals with high scores in femininity and low scores in masculinity; androgynous, which includes individuals with high scores in masculinity and femininity; and undifferentiated, which gathers those individuals with low scores in masculinity and femininity. The sample included 197 women and 140 men from the general population who voluntarily took part in the study. Participants ranged in age from 17 to 74 years, with a mean of 32.2 years (SD = 12.2), and with different social and demographic characteristics. They were assessed using the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), the Goldberg General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28) and the Self-Esteem Inventory (SEQ). In order to know whether there were any statistically significant differences in health according to sex roles, and whether these interacted with gender, analysis of variance(ANOVA)and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) were performed. The factors in all of them were the four sex role categories (androgynous, masculine, feminine and undifferentiated) and gender (men, women); and the dependent variables were the scores in GHQ-28 in the first group of analysis, and the two self-esteem factors in the second. In the MANOVA where the dependent variables were the four GHQ-28 scales of symptoms, we found that the interaction between sex roles and gender was statistically significant. When performing the analysis independently for each gender, we found that in the male sample there were statistically significant differences only according to sex roles in somatic symptoms. Men with undifferentiated sex roles showed fewer somatic symptoms than men with feminine or androgynous sex roles. In the female sample, we found statistically significant differences according to sex roles in somatic, anxiety and insomnia symptoms. Post hoc analysis with the Bonferroni adjustment showed that statistically significant differences occurred between the female groups with undifferentiated and androgynous sex roles. The latter female group showed fewer somatic, anxiety and insomnia symptoms. The analysis of the differences between women and men in mental health symptoms showed statistically significant differences in somatic, anxiety and insomnia symptoms. Women obtained higher average scores than men. However, there were no statistically significant differences in depressive symptoms nor social dysfunction. When the two factors from the self-esteem questionnaire were considered as dependent variables, the analyses of variance showed that the interaction between sex roles and gender was not statistically significant. Gender main effects were not statistically significant either, however sex role main effects were statistically significant. Post hoc analysis with the Bonferroni adjustment showed that individuals with an undifferentiated sex role evaluated themselves more negatively, and individuals with a masculine sex role evaluated themselves less negatively than those with a feminine sex role. There was no difference in self-confidence between individuals with androgynous sex roles and individuals with a masculine sex role, but both groups showed greater self-confidence than those individuals with feminine or undifferentiated sex roles. The latter group showed less self-confidence than individuals with a feminine sex role. These findings show that sex-typed individuals do not have better mental health or higher self-esteem than androgynous and undifferentiated individuals. Therefore, as in many other studies in other sociocultural settings, our results confirm the lack of empirical evidence for the traditional perspective that masculinity is better for men and femininity is better for women. Our data shows the complexity of relationships between sex roles and health, which depend on gender and on the kind of mental health indicator used. Therefore, while social dysfunction and depressive symptoms seem to be independent from sex role and gender, the effects of sex role on somatic, anxiety and insomnia symptoms were different for women and men. Whereas in the male sample, those with undifferentiated sex roles were the ones showing fewer somatic symptoms, in the women's sample, those with an androgynous sex role were the ones showing less somatic and anxiety and insomnia symptoms compared to those with an undifferentiated sex role. Nevertheless, self-esteem factors showed the highest differences between the various sex role categories. These factors seem to be the same for women and men. For example, we found that individuals with undifferentiated sex roles show higher negative self-worth and lower self-confidence than individuals classified in the other roles. In addition, individuals with a masculine sex role also value themselves less negatively and have higher self-confidence than individuals with a feminine sex role. Lastly, individuals classified in the androgynous sex role have similar self-confidence levels to those with a masculine sex role. The type of mental health symptoms where statistically significant. Differences between women and men are found, these differences were the same as those found in the female sample with regard to sex roles. This seems to indicate the relevance that sex roles have in mental health (in each gender), as some authors have highlighted. However, this study has some limitations to take into account when interpreting the results. Firstly, it is a transversal study, therefore we can talk about association, but not cause-and-effect relations between sex roles and health. Secondly, the sample is not random therefore it is not possible to generalize these results to the population.
Las investigaciones sobre las diferencias de género en salud mental generalmente muestran que los niveles de menor morbilidad psiquiátrica son mayores en las mujeres que en los hombres, siendo una de las variables explicativas de tales diferencias los roles sociales diferenciados en función del sexo. La ideología de los roles sexuales se refiere a las creencias respecto a qué roles son los adecuados para mujeres y hombres. Esto es relevante desde el punto de vista psicológico porque se asocia con la definición de sí-mismo, con las interacciones entre hombres y mujeres y con las relaciones sociales. La mayoría de las sociedades considera que mujeres y hombres son diferentes y deben ocupar roles distintos, por lo que los socializan de forma distinta. Y la masculinidad y la feminidad se refieren a las diferencias en rasgos, conductas e intereses que la sociedad ha asignado a cada uno de los géneros. Las teorías clásicas sobre las diferencias entre mujeres y hombres en roles de género y en tipificación sexual planteaban que tales diferencias eran normales y saludables, ya que reflejaban las normas sociales sobre la conducta apropiada para cada sexo. Además, los profesionales en salud mental tienden a ver a los hombres masculinos y a las mujeres femeninas como normales y sanas. Sin embargo, los resultados de las investigaciones no han aportado evidencia empírica de tales supuestos. Además, recientemente se ha reconocido que la inversión en los ideales de género puede ser estresante para hombres y mujeres porque se trata de ideales impuestos socialmente, dificultan la autorregulación y están relacionados con la representación externa de la autovalía. Pese a ello, la evidencia empírica no es concluyente, habiéndose realizado la mayoría de estudios sobre roles sexuales y salud con muestras anglosajonas, por lo que se desconoce si tal relación se da también en otras culturas. El objetivo del presente trabajo es conocer si existen diferencias en salud mental, en una muestra de la población general española, entre las cuatro opciones de rol sexual propuestas por Sandra Bem: masculinidad, feminidad, androginia e indiferenciación. La muestra estuvo formada por 337 personas de la población general que participaron voluntariamente en el estudio, sus edades oscilaron entre los 17 y 74 años (M = 32.2, SD = 12.2) y presentaron diferentes características sociodemográficas. Las muestras fueron evaluadas con el Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), con el Cuestionario de salud general de Goldberg (GHQ-28) y con el Inventario de autoestima (Self-Esteem Inventory, SEQ). En los resultados encontramos que la asociación entre roles sexuales y salud mental depende del tipo de indicador de salud utilizado. Además, en la sintomatología somática, de ansiedad y de insomnio, también se encontró una relación estrecha con el género. En la muestra de hombres, los clasificados como indiferenciados presentaron menor sintomatología somática respecto a los clasificados como femeninos o como andróginos, mientras que en la muestra de mujeres las clasificadas como indiferenciadas fueron las que tuvieron más síntomas somáticos, de ansiedad e insomnio respecto a las andróginas. El análisis de las diferencias entre mujeres y hombres en sintomatología de salud mental mostró que se daban diferencias estadísticamente significativas en sintomatología somática, de ansiedad e insomnio, teniendo las mujeres puntuaciones medias más altas que los hombres. Sin embargo, no se obtuvieron diferencias estadísticamente significativas en sintomatología depresiva ni en disfunción social. Dichas diferencias coinciden con las obtenidas en la muestra de mujeres al analizar las diferencias en salud mental en función de los roles sexuales. Ello indica la relevancia que los roles sexuales pueden tener en las diferencias de género en salud mental, como han señalado algunos autores. Los resultados de este estudio muestran que el seguimiento de los roles sexuales tradicionales no conllevan a una mejor salud mental. En conclusión, como se ha encontrado en varios estudios realizados en otros entornos socio-culturales nuestros resultados confirman la falta de apoyo empírico para el modelo tradicional en el cual la masculinidad es mejor para los hombres y la feminidad para las mujeres.
ABSTRACT
Esta investigação examinou as relações entre papéis sexuais, ajustamento conjugal e emocional de mulheres no período de gravidez da transição para a parentalidade. Participaram 135 mulheres recrutadas na rede pública de saúde (SUS). As gestantes estavam esperando os seus primeiros filhos e coabitavam com seus parceiros, independentemente de serem formalmente casadas. Os instrumentos utilizados foram o Bem Sex-Role Inventory (Bem, 1974), a Dyadic Adjustment Scale (Spanier, 1976) e a Escala Fatorial de Neuroticismo (Hutz & Nunes, 2001). A coleta foi individual e, em geral, os instrumentos foram preenchidos na presença do entrevistador. Um número pequeno de questionários foi respondido no domicílio dos sujeitos e, posteriormente, devolvido aos pesquisadores. Os resultados mostraram relações significativas entre Papéis Sexuais e Ajustamento Conjugal. Os dados são discutidos à luz da Teoria de Esquema de Gênero e do conhecimento produzido na linha de pesquisa da transição para a parentalidade.
The present investigation examined the relationship between sexual roles and pregnant women marital and emotional adjustment on the transition to parenthood. A hundred thirty three women participants were recruited from the public health care network in southern Brazil. The participants lived together with their partners and they were waiting for their first son or daughter. The tests used were the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (Bem, 1974), the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (Spanier, 1976) and the Neuroticism Factor Scale (Hutz & Nunes, 2001). The data collection was individual and, in several cases, they fill the instruments in an interviewer presence. In a small amount of cases, participants responded to the instruments at home and later they returned them to the researcher. The results showed significant relationships between sex roles and marital adjustment. The results are discussed based on gender theories and on the international research on the transition to parenthood results.
Subject(s)
Gender Identity , Pregnancy , Stress, PsychologicalABSTRACT
Este estudo se baseia em uma pesquisa qualitativa realizada com 24 estudantes franceses de 18 a 22 anos. No período de transição de suas vidas, rapazes e moças atravessam uma fase de errância, de experimentação afetiva e sexual, ao mesmo tempo em que aspiram a um ideal de vida conjugal. A errância sexual e afetiva constitui a prática e o sentido dados à sua experiência para uma importante parte das pessoas entrevistadas. A vida conjugal ou o estabelecimento de uma relação de casal monogâmica e estável constitui o ideal da maioria dos homens e mulheres entrevistados. A sexualidade é vivida, ao longo desse período de transição, como uma experiência de iniciação, às vezes difícil ou confusa e visa a construção de si e, mais a longo termo, do casal, mais que a uma multiplicação de experiências "recreativas".
This qualitative study was carried out with 24 French students, ages between 18 and 22 years. During this transitional period of their lives, young adults experience a sexual and affective wandering phase, and at the same time, aspire to an ideal married life. Sexual and affective wandering refers to the experience and its meaning for the most part of those interviewed. A married life or establishment of a monogamous stable relationship is the ideal aspired by the majority of men and women interviewed. Sexuality is experienced, throughout this transitional period, as a sometimes difficult and confusing experience of initiation that aims the construction of the self, and in the long term, the construction of the couple, beyond multiple "recreational" experiences.
Este estudio se basa en una investigación cualitativa realizada con 24 estudiantes franceses de 18 a 22 años. En este periodo de transición de sus vidas, los muchachos y las muchachas atraviesan una fase de errancia, de experimentación afectiva y sexual, al mismo tiempo aspirando a un ideal de vida en pareja. La errancia sexual y afectiva constituye la práctica y el sentido dado a su experiencia para una importante parte de las personas entrevistadas. La vida en pareja o, el establecimiento de una relación de pareja monogámica y estable, constituye el ideal de la mayoría de los hombres y de las mujeres entrevistadas. La sexualidad es vivida, a lo largo de este período de transición, como una experiencia de iniciación, a veces difícil o confusa e tiene por objeto la construcción de si y, más a largo plazo, de la pareja, más que una multiplicación de experiencias "recreativas".