Teoria da mente e empatia em adultos típicos: uma revisão de escopo / Theory of mind and empathy in typical adults: a scoping review / Teoría de la mente y empatía en adultos típicos: una revisión panorámica

Teoria da mente e empatia são habilidades sociocognitivas implicadas na compreensão do mundo social e elaboração de respostas em contextos sociais. Entretanto, é preciso ainda avançar na precisão como as pesquisas apresentam esses constructos e as relações entre eles. O objetivo deste estudo foi realizar uma revisão de escopo a respeito das relações conceituais apontadas entre teoria da mente e empatia em pesquisas que investigam diferenças socioindividuais em adultos típicos, bem como organizar essas produções em função de categorias temáticas. Foram analisados 62 artigos, sendo observados cinco diferentes modelos de articulações conceituais entre teoria da mente e empatia e três núcleos de produção temática, ligados ao comportamento social, às variações fisiológicas na vida cotidiana, e, às variações cognitivas, afetivas e sociais. Discutem-se também avanços e limitações nessa área, apontando-se tanto para uma profícua produção como para a necessidade de se avançar na construção de parâmetros mais precisos nessa área. (AU)

Theory of mind and empathy constitute sociocognitive skills central to understanding the social world and formulating responses within social contexts. However, studies continue to face the challenge of clarifying their boundaries and unraveling the presumed connections between them. This study aimed to conduct a scoping review of the conceptual interplay between theory of mind and empathy in research exploring socio-individual differences in typical adults, while also organizing these findings according to thematic categories. A total of 62 articles were analyzed, revealing five different models of relations between theory of mind and empathy, as well as three thematic production nuclei linked to social behavior, physiological variations in daily life, and cognitive, affective, and social variations. The study also discusses advancements and limitations in this field, pointing out both a fruitful production and the need to advance in the construction of more precise parameters in this area. (AU)

La teoría de la mente y la empatía son habilidades sociocognitivas implicadas en la comprensión del mundo social y la elaboración de respuestas en contextos sociales. Sin embargo, todavía es necesario avanzar en la precisión con la que las investigaciones presentan estos constructos y las relaciones entre ellos. El objetivo de este estudio fue realizar una revisión de alcance de las relaciones conceptuales entre la teoría de la mente y la empatía en las investigaciones sobre las diferencias socio-individuales en los adultos típicos, así como organizar estas producciones según categorías temáticas. Se analizaron 62 artículos y fueron identificados cinco modelos diferentes de relación entre la teoría de la mente y la empatía y tres núcleos de producción temática: comportamiento social, variaciones fisiológicas y variaciones cognitivas, afectivas y sociales. También se discuten los avances y las limitaciones en esta área, señalando tanto una producción fructífera como la necesidad de avanzar en la construcción de parámetros más precisos en este campo. (AU)

Relación entre modelos operantes internos y nivel educacional materno, con la teoría de la mente en niños chilenos de 3 y 4 años: rol mediador del lenguaje mentalizante materno / Relationship between Internal Working Models and Maternal Educational Level, with the Theory of Mind of Chilean Children Aged 3 and 4: Mediating Role of Maternal Mentalizing Language

Resumen La teoría de la mente (ToM) es la capacidad de reconocer los propios estados mentales y predecir los de otros, habilidad fundamental en el desarrollo socioemocional/cognitivo en preescolares. El presente estudio buscó describir la ToM de niños chilenos de 3 y 4 años, analizar las diferencias en su desarrollo según la edad y el rol mediador del lenguaje mentalizante (LM) materno, considerando el sexo de los niños, los modelos operantes internos (MOI) y el nivel educacional materno. La muestra fueron 110 niños con sus madres. Se aplicó un cuestionario sociodemográfico, pruebas para evaluar la ToM, el LM y los MOI de las madres. Un 50.9% de los niños se ubicó en el quintil 1 de la ToM y ninguno logró llegar al quinto. Las habilidades de la ToM con un mayor nivel de logro diferenciaron entre pretender y realidad (60.0%) y la de diferenciar la perspectiva visual propia y de otro (50.9%). Un 59.1 % de los niños no logró inferir deseos a través de la mirada, un 83.6% no logró la habilidad de acceso al conocimiento, y un 100% no logró la falsa creencia. Los resultados muestran diferencias significativas entre niños de distintos rangos etarios en el desarrollo de la ToM, sugiriendo una creciente dificultad de adquisición de sus habilidades. Además, un mayor LM de las madres se relacionó con mayor desarrollo de la ToM en los niños, con un rol mediador en la influencia de los MOI y nivel educacional materno sobre la ToM.

Abstract The theory of mind (ToM) is the ability to recognize one's own mental states and infer them in others, fundamental in socio-emotional/cognitive development in preschoolers. This study sought to describe the ToM of 3- and 4-year-old Chilean children, to analyze the differences in their development according to age, and the mediating role of maternal mentalizing language (ML) considering the sex of the children, the internal working models (IWM) and maternal educational level. The sample considered 110 children with their mothers. A sociodemographic questionnaire, tests to evaluate the ToM, the ML and the IWM of the mothers were applied. 50.9% of the children were in quintile 1 of the ToM and none managed to reach the fifth. The ToM skills with a higher level of achievement were differentiating between pretending and reality (60.0%) and differentiating one's own visual perspective and another's (50.9%). 59.1 % of the children did not manage to infer wishes through the gaze, 83.6% did not achieve the ability to access knowledge, and 100% did not achieve the false belief. The results show significant differences between children of different age ranges in the development of ToM, suggesting a growing difficulty in acquiring their skills. In addition, a higher ML in mothers was related to a greater development of ToM in children, with a mediating role in the influence of IWM and maternal educational level on ToM.

Advances in social cognition of obsessive-compulsive disorder / 中华行为医学与脑科学杂志

The main clinical features of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) are obsessions and/or compulsions. Due to its symptoms are heterogeneous and have a wide range of influences, OCD usually causes different degrees of damage to patients' social functions. Social cognition is the process of perceiving and judging the psychology and behavior of others or oneself. Its core is to understand the information processing process and the underlying mechanism of social psychological phenomena. Studies have shown that social cognitive deficits can affect an individual's social function. Therefore, many scholars believe that the social cognitive function of OCD patients are impaired. Through collecting and sorting out relevant literature, we find that OCD patients can’t perceive social cues accurately, and they have trouble recognizing their own emotions and those of others. In general, they are not prone to emotional response, that is, their ability of emotional experience is impaired, while because of their own emotional regulation dysfunction, they overreact to special events that can induce the obsession and/or compulsion.The patients have poor insight into the mental states of others.The researches on attributions of life events are dificient, so their characteristics of attribution styles are not yet clear.These findings provide a preliminary theoretical basis and reference for the specificity of social cognitive impairment in patients with OCD and for guiding clinical effective and precise intervention.

Sociocognição e saúde mental: a 'leitura do outro' no cuidado em saúde / Cognición social y salud mental: la 'lectura de la mente' en la assistencia a salud / Social cognition and mental health: the mindreading in the healthcare work

RESUMO. Teoria da mente é a habilidade sociocognitiva de inferir pensamentos, sentimentos e intenções. É uma habilidade que sustenta as relações sociais e parece particularmente relevante para o exercício de certas atividades que estão ligadas à 'leitura do outro', como a prática de profissionais que exercem o cuidado em equipamentos de saúde, como ocorre nos Centros de Atenção Psicossocial. Este estudo teórico teve o objetivo de analisar a importância das habilidades sociocognitivas para o trabalho em saúde, especialmente na saúde mental, a fim de identificar e discutir possíveis fatores que podem ter impacto na inferência que os profissionais fazem a respeito do que os usuários do serviço estão pensando, sentindo ou querendo. A análise permitiu observar as formas pelas quais a teoria da mente pode se tornar importante ferramenta para o profissional no processo terapêutico. Além disso, foi possível identificar que, no formato em que tem funcionado atualmente, o trabalho em Centros de Atenção Psicossocial tem exposto o profissional a diversos estressores que parecem produzir efeitos em suas habilidades sociocognitivas, podendo prejudicar não apenas sua saúde como também o exercício do cuidado.

RESUMEN. Teoría de la mente es la capacidad sociocognitiva de inferir pensamientos, sentimientos e intenciones. Es una habilidad que apoya las relaciones sociales y parece particularmente relevante para el ejercicio de determinadas actividades que están vinculadas a 'leer al otro', como la práctica de los profesionales que brindan atención en equipos de salud, como ocurre en los Centros de Atención Psicosocial. Este estudio teórico tuvo como objetivo analizar la importancia de las habilidades socio-cognitivas para el trabajo en salud, especialmente en salud mental, buscando identificar y discutir posibles factores que pueden incidir en la inferencia que hacen los profesionales sobre lo que piensan, sienten o sienten los usuarios del servicio. El análisis permitió observar las formas en que la teoría de la mente puede convertirse en una herramienta importante para los profesionales en el proceso terapéutico. Además, se pudo identificar que, en el formato en el que se ha operado actualmente, el trabajo en Centros de Atención Psicosocial ha expuesto a los profesionales a diversos estresores que parecen afectar sus habilidades sociocognitivas, los cuales pueden perjudicar no solo su salud sino también el ejercicio del cuidado.

ABSTRACT. Theory of mind is a social cognition ability to infer thoughts, feelings and intentions. It is a skill that underpins social relationships and seems particularly relevant to the exercise of certain activities linked to mindreading, such as healthcare practice, for example, in Psychosocial Care Centers. This theoretical study aims to analyze the importance of social cognition skills for mental health practitioners, seeking to identify and discuss possible factors that impact how these professionals infer what service users are thinking, feeling or wanting. The analysis allowed us to observe how the theory of mind can become an important tool for professionals in the therapeutic process. In particular, the study concludes that work in Psychosocial Care Centers has exposed professionals to various stressors that seem to have an effect on their social cognition skills, which can harm not only their health but also their ability to attend to the needs of service users.

Influence of blood phenylalanine level variations on the development of executive functions and social cognition in children with phenylketonuria

Abstract Objective: To investigate the performance of 27 children with phenylketonuria (PKU) in tests of Executive Functions (EF) and Social Cognition (SC), and their associations with metabolic control inferred by phenylalanine (Phe) levels. Methods: The PKU group was dichotomized according to baseline Phe-levels into; "classical PKU"(n = 14), with Phe-levels above 1200 µmol/L (> 20 mg/dL); and "mild PKU" (n = 13) with Phe-between 360 and 1200 µmol/L (6-20 mg/dL). The neuropsychological assessment focused on the EF and SC subtests of the NEPSY-II battery and intellectual performance. Children were compared to age-matched healthy participants. Results: Participants with PKU presented significantly lower Intellectual Quotient (IQ) compared to controls (p = 0.001). Regarding EF analysis adjusted by age and IQ, significant differences between groups were observed only in the executive attention subtests (p = 0.029). The SC set of variables was significantly different between groups (p = 0.003), as in the affective recognition task (p < 0.001). In the PKU group, the relative variation of Phe-achieved 32.1 ± 21.0%. Relative Phe-variation was correlated only with measures of Working Memory (p < 0.001), Verbal Fluency (p = 0.004), Inhibitory Control (p = 0.035) and Theory of Mind (p = 0.003). Conclusions: Phonological Verbal Fluency, Working Memory, Inhibitory Control, and Theory of Mind were shown to be most vulnerable when there is non-ideal metabolic control. Variations in the level of Phe-may have a selective negative effect on Executive Functions and Social Cognition, but not on intellectual performance.

Teoría de la Mente en pacientes Traumatizados Craneoencefálico

Antecedentes: Uno de los impedimentos más importantes en los traumatismos craneoencefálicos (TEC), revistan en las dificultades de interacción social, la Teoría de la Mente (ToM) es un factor fundamental de la cognición social, que permite una interacción satisfactoria del sujeto. Objetivo: Observar la capacidad de ToM en pacientes TEC moderado o severo, y su relación con dominios neurocognitivos. Método: Pacientes diagnosticados con TEC moderado o severo, evaluados neuropsicológicamente, edad 16 y 45 años, se aplicaron Test de la Mirada (TdlM) e Historias Extrañas (HT). Resultados: Se encontraron correlaciones entre TdlM y HT con memoria y funciones ejecutivas. Pacientes lesionados izquierdos, rinden significativamenie menos en HT. Conclusiones: Pacientes con TEC moderado o grave tienen una disminución de la capacidad de ToM. Existe una relación entre memoria episódica y ToM, podría deberse a que esta última requiere información a experiencias pasadas. Durante la infancia la ToM depende de la memoria episódica, pero cuando ambas se desarrollan adecuadamente, son independientes. Existe una relación entre funciones ejecutivas y ToM. Ambos constructos están vinculados en la infancia, pero luego comienzan a ser más independientes. Sin embargo, la ToM igualmente va a requerir de las funciones ejecutivas.

Background: One of the most important impediments in traumatic brain injuries (TBI), are the difficulties of social and family interaction. The Theory of Mind (ToM) is a fundamental factor of social cognition, which allows a satisfactory interaction of the individual with his environment. Objetive: To observe the ability of ToM in moderate or severe TBI patients, and its relationship with neurocognitive domains. Methods: Outpatients with diagnosis of moderate or severe TBI, evaluated neuropsychologically, age between 16 and 45 years, were applied Eyes Test (ET) and the Hinting task (HT). Results: Correlations were found between ET and HT with memory and executive functions. Injured left, perform significantly less in HT Patients with moderate or severe TBI have a decrease in ToM capacity. Conclusions: There is a relationship between episodic memory and ToM, which could be due to the latter 's need to request information from past experiences through episodic memory. During childhood ToM depends on episodic memory, but when both are achieved and developed properly, they are independent. There is a relationship between executive functions and ToM. Both constructs are linked in childhood, but then they begin to be more independent. However, ToM tasks will also require executive functions.

The effects of reading and watching fiction on the development of social cognition: a systematic review / Os efeitos da leitura e filmes de ficção no desenvolvimento da cognição social: uma revisão sistemática

ABSTRACT Social cognition is an umbrella term used to address the set of neurocognitive processes involved in effective social interaction, such as Theory of Mind and empathy, and is important for understanding of others' intentions and actions and decision making. Narratives can serve as tools for learning social norms and understanding other people, as they involve mental simulations of social interactions. This review aimed to gather the results of current studies on the effects of reading and watching fiction movies on the development of social cognition. We included 16 publications, all of which were empirical studies. The results showed that, depending on individual factors, as well as on the specifics of the intervention, both reading and watching movies seem to influence the processes of development of social cognition, especially if associated with concomitant or subsequent activities, such as discussions. More research is needed to understand the specific details of this relationship.

RESUMO Cognição Social é um termo usado para se referir a uma coleção de processos neurocognitivos, como Teoria da Mente e Empatia, envolvidos em interações sociais, e é fundamental para a compreensão das ações e intenções de outros indivíduos e para a tomada de decisões. Narrativas podem servir como ferramentas para o aprendizado de normas sociais e para a compreensão de outras pessoas, pois envolvem a simulação mental de interações sociais. Esta revisão teve como objetivo reunir os resultados de estudos atuais sobre os efeitos da leitura e dos filmes de ficção no desenvolvimento da Cognição Social. Foram incluídas 16 publicações, sendo todas estudos empíricos. Os resultados demonstraram que, dependendo de fatores individuais e de aspectos específicos das intervenções, a leitura e os filmes parecem influenciar processos de desenvolvimento da Cognição Social, especialmente se forem associados a atividades como discussões. Mais pesquisas são necessárias para esclarecer os detalhes dessa relação.

Lesions in the Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex and their Impact on Social Cognition / Lesiones en la Corteza Prefrontal Ventromedial y su Impacto en la Cognición Social

Abstract Aims: To identify the impact of ventromedial prefrontal cortex injury (vmPFc) on social cognition (SC) processes in a stroke patient in relation to a control group matched by age, gender, and schooling. Possible associations between post-injury behavior and impacted neuropsychological attributes of emotion recognition, Theory of Mind (TOM), and empathy are discussed. Method: One male patient (n = 1) (58 years old) with stroke in right vmpFC and 10 healthy participants completed different screening, neuropsychological assessment, and SC tests as: Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination-Revised; The Trail Making Test; Raven's Matrices; Faux Pas Test; Reading Mind in the Eyes Test, among others. Results: Due single cases are reported, p< .05 values of a tail were considered statistically significant in all comparisons. Correlations were found between damage in vmPFC and alterations in affective TOM, working and retrograde memory, mood and relational alterations in the patient. Discrepancies were found with respect to other studies in relation to the laterality of the injury and the impact of cognitive and affective empathy that seems to be relatively intact. Conclusions: There is a need to clarify the role of affective TOM after acquired brain injury (ABI) in vmPFC. A protocol is needed to assess and intervene in aspects of TOM that would involve documenting strengths and deficits of TOM: inter and intrapersonal after an ABI. Similarly, there is a need to address the lateralization of different domains of function in vmPFC and their relationship to affective TOM.

Resumen Objetivo: Identificar el impacto de la lesión en la corteza prefrontal ventromedial (vmPFC por sus siglas en inglés) en los procesos de cognición social (SC por sus siglas en inglés) a un paciente con accidente cerebrovascular (ACV) en rela-ción a un grupo control pareado por edad, gènero y escolaridad. Se discuten las posibles asociaciones entre el comporta-miento posterior a la lesión y los atributos neuropsicológicos impactados de reconocimiento de emociones, Teoria de la Mente (TOM por sus siglas en inglés) y empatia. Método: Un paciente con ACV en el vmPFC derecho y 10 participantes sanos completaron diferentes pruebas de screening, evaluación neuropsicológica y SC. Resultados: Se encontraron correlaciones entre el dano en vmPFC y alteraciones en la TOM afectiva, memoria de trabajo y retrógrada, alteraciones animicas y relacionales en el paciente. Se hallaron discrepancias frente a otros estudios en relación con la lateralidad de la lesión y al impacto de la empatia cognitiva y afectiva la cual parece estar relativamente intacta. Conclusiones: Se requiere aclarar el panorama frente al deterioro de la TOM afectiva despuès de una lesión cerebral adquirida (ABI por sus siglas en inglés) en vmPFC. Se necesita un protocolo para evaluar e intervenir en aspectos de la TOM que involucraria documentar fortalezas y déficits de TOM: inter e intrapersonal despuès de un ABI. De igual manera, se requiere abordar la lateralización de diferentes dominios de la función en vmPFC y su relación con la TOM afectiva.

Teoría de la mente, ¿un error conceptual en neuropsicología? / Theory of mind, a conceptual error in neuropsychology?

La neuropsicología contemporánea reconoce la teoría de la mente como la capacidad que desarrollan los niños, entre los 4 y 5 años, de interpretar, predecir y explicar el comportamiento propio y de los otros en términos de sus estados mentales subyacentes, ligando su estudio a diversos tipos de trastornos con especial énfasis en los trastornos del espectro autista. El objetivo del artículo se centra en la reflexión sobre lo que debería considerar una teoría que pretenda indagar sobre la mente, abordando los conceptos de inferencias y representaciones, contrastando su contenido con la psicología de sentido común. Se analiza la pertinencia de dirigir la línea de estudio, considerando un cambio conceptual por uno más adecuado y que genere menos vacíos teóricos al momento de establecer su respaldo epistémico. Para tal efecto, la cognición social se presenta como posible candidato a reemplazar la tan polémica teoría de la mente. Desde este punto de vista, es importante enfatizar la importancia que tienen los conceptos a la hora de informar los resultados de las investigaciones, debido a que ellos pueden estigmatizar y/o caricaturizar a los grupos de personas con los que se trabaja, grupos que particularmente propenden a ser diferenciados por el colectivo social dadas las características basales por los que se eligen para formar parte de las investigaciones.

Contemporary neuropsychology recognizes the theory of mind as the capacity that children develop, between the ages of 4 and 5, to interpret, predict and explain their own behavior and that of others in terms of their underlying mental states, linking its study to various types of disorders with special emphasis on autism spectrum disorders. The objective of the article focuses on the reflection on what a theory that seeks to investigate the mind should consider, addressing the concepts of inferences and representations, contrasting its content with folk psychology. The relevance of directing the line of study is analyzed considering a conceptual change for a more appropriate one that generates fewer theoretical gaps at the time of establishing its epistemic support, for this purpose, social cognition is presented as a possible candidate to replace the highly controversial theory of the mind. From this point of view, it is important to emphasize the importance of concepts when informing the results of research, since they can stigmatize and / or caricature the groups of people with whom they work, groups that particularly they tend to be differentiated by the social group given the baseline characteristics by which they are chosen to be part of the research.

Social cognition and bipolar disorder: pending questions and unexplored topics

Social cognition has gained prominence in psychiatric research, beginning with schizophrenia and more recently in bipolar disorder. Considering the relevance of this domain to interpersonal relationships and functionality, we aimed to explore the fundamental research and clinical issues regarding social cognition and discuss future directions and challenges in the field of bipolar disorder.

Social cognition and suicide-related behaviors in depression: a cross-sectional, exploratory study

Objective: To explore the association between social cognition and previous suicide attempts and non-suicidal self-injurious behavior in adults with unipolar depressive disorders. Methods: Seventy-two patients undergoing outpatient treatment for unipolar depression were enrolled in this cross-sectional study. Theory of mind was assessed using the Hinting Task and the Revised Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test. Empathy was evaluated using the Interpersonal Reactivity Index. Lifetime suicide attempts and non-suicidal self-injurious behavior were assessed using the Columbia Suicide Risk Rating Scale. Participants with and without these suicide-related outcomes were compared in terms of social cognition. Results: Patients with previous suicide attempts performed worse on the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (p = 0.017). Patients with a history of non-suicidal self-injurious behavior were younger (p = 0.005), had a younger age at first depressive episode (p = 0.017), and scored higher on personal distress in the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (p = 0.027). Only personal distress remained independently associated with non-suicidal self-injurious behavior in multivariable analysis (p = 0.038). Conclusion: Among patients with depression, those with previous suicide attempts or non-suicidal self-injurious behavior showed worse social cognition. These results encourage future research on social cognition deficits as clinical markers of suicide-related behaviors and as targets for interventions.

Revisão de escopo sobre teoria da mente e bullying: uma atualização crítica / Scoping review on theory of mind and bullying: a critical update / Revisión del alcance sobre teoría de la mente y bullying: una actualización crítica

O presente estudo teve por objetivo realizar uma revisão de escopo sobre pesquisas que investigam a re-lação entre a Teoria da Mente (ToM) e o bullying escolar em sete bases de dados nas áreas da saúde/psico-logia (PubMed, PsycInfo e Lilacs), da educação (Eric) e interdisciplinares (SciELO, Web of Science e Scopus). Dos 270 arquivos identificados inicialmente, 14 foram elegíveis para a revisão e analisados a respeito dos seus principais resultados, das medidas em ToM utilizadas e das variáveis relacionadas à classificação de bullying. Verificou-se que a maioria dos estudos reportou uma relação direta (relações que tendem a ser estatisticamente significativas) e/ou indireta (mediada por outras variáveis) entre papéis dos envolvidos e tipos de bullying e o desempenho em tarefas de ToM. Contudo, uma discussão crítica em relação às medi-das de avaliação em ToM foi realizada e apontou a necessidade de esclarecimento no tipo de avaliação e de atualização das tarefas.

The present study aimed to conduct a scoping review on researches which investigated the relationship between Theory of Mind (ToM) and school bullying in seven databases in the areas of health/psychology (PubMed, PsycInfo, and Lilacs), education (Eric), and interdisciplinary (SciELO, Web of Science, and Scopus). Of the 270 results initially identified, 14 were eligible for review and analyzed regarding their main results, the measures in ToM used, and variables related to the classification of bullying. It was found that most studies reported a direct (relationships that tend to be statistically significant) and/or indirect (mediated by other variables) relationship between the roles of the students involved and types of bullying and the performance in tasks of ToM. However, a critical discussion regarding the assessment measures in ToM was carried out pointing to the need for clarification in the type of assessment and updating of tasks.

El presente estudio tuvo como objetivo llevar a cabo una revisión del alcance de estudios que investigan la relación entre Teoría de la Mente (ToM) y el bullying en siete bases de datos de las áreas de salud/psicología (PubMed, PsycInfo y Lilacs), educación (Eric) e interdisciplinares (SciELO, Web of Science y Scopus). De los 270 estudios identificados inicialmente, 14 fueron revisados y analizados con respecto a sus principales resultados, a las medidas utilizadas en ToM y a las variables relacionadas con la clasificación del bullying. Se encontró que la mayoría de los estudios reportaron una relación directa (relaciones que tienden a ser estadísticamente significativas) y/o indirecta (mediada por otras variables) entre los roles de los involu-crados y los tipos de bullying y el desempeño en las tareas de ToM. Sin embargo, se realizó un debate crítico sobre las medidas de evaluación en ToM, señalando la necesidad de aclaración en el tipo de evaluación y actualización de las tareas.

Validation of the Brazilian version of the Hinting Task and Facial Emotion Recognition Test (FERT-100) in patients with schizophrenia / Validação da versão brasileira do Hinting Task e do Teste de Reconhecimento de Emoções Faciais (FERT-100) em pacientes com esquizofrenia

ABSTRACT Social cognition is an especially relevant domain in schizophrenia due to its association with functional impairment. However, we still do not have studies that have validated instruments with internationally established psychometric qualities for the Brazilian population. Objectives: This study aimed to present psychometric qualities and contribute to the validation of the Brazilian version of the Hinting Task and Facial Emotion Recognition Test (FERT-100). Methods: A total of 104 stabilized patients living in the community diagnosed with schizophrenia and 89 controls were evaluated. We assess the psychometric properties of Hinting Task and FERT-100 for discriminant construct validity, divergent construct validity, convergent construct validity, concurrent criterion validity, and reliability. Results: There is a statistically significant difference between patients and controls regarding social cognition (Hinting Task: Z=6.85, p<0.001; FERT-100: t=4.88, p<0.001). The main predictors of variation in social cognition were the neurocognitive domains. The associations between social cognition tests and other studied variables are similar to what is found in the literature. Social cognition maintains correlation with functional capacity even when neurocognition is taken into account. Conclusions: The validity of the Brazilian version of Hinting Task and FERT-100 can be determined, since the relationship of these tests with other clinical variables is similar to that observed in the literature.

RESUMO A cognição social é um domínio especialmente relevante na esquizofrenia devido à sua associação com o comprometimento funcional. No entanto, ainda não temos estudos que validaram instrumentos com qualidades psicométricas internacionalmente estabelecidas para a população brasileira. Objetivos: Apresentar as qualidades psicométricas e contribuir para a validação da versão brasileira do Hinting Task e do Teste de Reconhecimento de Emoções Faciais (FERT-100). Métodos: Foram avaliados 104 pacientes estabilizados residentes na comunidade com diagnóstico de esquizofrenia e 89 controles. Avaliou-se as propriedades psicométricas do Hinting Task e FERT-100 para validade de construto discriminante, validade de construto divergente, validade de construto convergente, validade de critério concorrente e confiabilidade. Resultados: Houve uma diferença estatisticamente significativa entre pacientes e controles quanto à cognição social (Hinting Task: Z=6,85; p<0,001. FERT-100: t=4,88; p<0,001). Os principais preditores da variação na cognição social foram os domínios neurocognitivos. As associações entre os testes de cognição social e outras variáveis estudadas são semelhantes às encontradas na literatura. A cognição social mantém correlação com a capacidade funcional mesmo quando a neurocognição é levada em consideração. Conclusões: A validade da versão brasileira do Hinting Task e do FERT-100 pode ser determinada, pois a relação desses testes com outras variáveis clínicas é semelhante à observada na literatura.

Theory of mind deficit in women with breast cancer and depression: A comparative study

Background: Studies have established that Theory of Mind (ToM) is impaired in patients with depression, but few studies have investigated the status of ToM in breast cancer patients who often suffer from depression. Our objective was to compare the ToM deficits in women with breast cancer with and without depression with a control group. Methods: The study was conducted at the Oncology department of a multi-speciality hospital in Kolkata. It was a cross sectional matched control study. We compared the ToM performance of women with breast cancer and depression (N=39), breast cancer without depression (N=63) and a healthy control group (N=34) using the widely used ToM task, Reading the Mind in the Eyes test (Eyes Test). Depression was diagnosed using Mini - International Neuropsychiatric Interview following International Classification of Diseases - 10th edition guidelines. Chi-square and one-way analysis of variances was done. Results: Both groups of patients had greater impairment in ToM compared to healthy controls (p<0.05). Among breast cancer patients, presence of depression predicted even greater impairment of ToM (p<0.05). Lower income, less education and not being in any occupation other than homemaking were associated with greater ToM impairment across all groups (p<0.05). Conclusion: Breast cancer patients suffering from depression may have an additional burden of impaired social cognition, which may reduce their ability to shore up social support when it is most required. This needs to be addressed urgently to ensure better quality of life.

The Type of Information People with Schizophrenia Use in Ambiguous Social Situations / ¿Qué tipo de información usan las personas con esquizofrenia en situaciones sociales ambiguas?

ABSTRACT Background and objectives: Rather than focusing on the extensively studied social perception and recognition impairments in people with schizophrenia, this study focuses on the type of social information considered relevant by people with schizophrenia, and how they use it to arrive at conclusions about social situations. Methods: Participants included 50 outpatients with schizophrenia from the Hospital del Salvador at Valparaíso, Chile, and 50 healthy comparators matched by age and gender. Subjects completed the Social Information Preference Test (SIPT), which presents scenes depicting ambiguous social situations with faces, thoughts, and facts about the scene hidden from view. Participants were required to select a limited number of these items and then choose between possible interpretations of the scene (positive, neutral, or negative). Additionally, they are asked to provide a feeling of certainty in their answers, using a 7-point visual analogue scale. Results: People with schizophrenia, as well as controls had a strong preference for knowing the thoughts of the characters. Both groups were least likely to choose emotional expressions. Patients were significantly less likely to choose object/information than controls. Both groups showed a high certainty in their responses and no tendency to choose negative interpretations. Limitations: compensated clinical status of the patients may have influenced the results. Conclusions: The results of this study suggest that, despite difficulties perceiving clues about the mental state of others, people with schizophrenia use this information to make sense of social situations, and apparently, they do not have problems in understanding social interactions.

RESUMEN Objetivos: En lugar de los impedimentos en la percepción social, ampliamente estudiada en personas con esquizofrenia, centramos nuestra investigación en el tipo de información social considerada relevante por las personas con esquizofrenia y cómo la usan para llegar a conclusiones sobre situaciones sociales. Métodos: Se incluyó a 50 pacientes ambulatorios con esquizofrenia del Hospital del Salvador en Valparaíso, Chile, y 50 comparadores sanos, emparejados por edad y sexo. Los sujetos completaron la Prueba de Preferencia de Información Social (SIPT), que presenta escenas con situaciones sociales ambiguas en las que rostros, pensamientos y hechos sobre la escena están ocultos a la vista. Los participantes deben seleccionar un pequeño número de estos elementos y luego elegir entre posibles interpretaciones (positiva, neutral o negativa). Además, se les pide que proporcionen una sensación de certeza en sus respuestas, utilizando una escala analógica visual de 7 puntos. Resultados: Tanto las personas con esquizofrenia como los comparadores mostraron una fuerte preferencia por conocer los pensamientos de los personajes. La opción menos preferida por ambos grupos fue las expresiones emocionales, mientras que los pacientes escogieron menos objeto/información que los controles. Ambos grupos mostraron una alta certeza en sus respuestas y no se observó una tendencia a elegir interpretaciones negativas. Limitaciones: el estado clínico compensado de los pacientes puede haber influido en los resultados. Conclusiones: Los resultados de este estudio indican que, a pesar de las dificultades para percibir pistas sobre el estado mental de los demás, las personas con esquizofrenia usan esta información para dar sentido a las situaciones sociales y, aparentemente, no presentan problemas para comprender las interacciones sociales.

Habilidades de cognición social en un grupo de adolescentes de bajos recursos socioeconómicos de Medellín, Colombia / Social cognition skills in a group of adolescents of low socioeconomic resources in Medellin, Colombia

En este estudio se realizó un análisis comparativo, de acuerdo con el estrato socioeconómico, de tres habilidades de cognición social (teoría de la mente, empatía y reconocimiento de emociones) en un grupo de adolescentes de Medellín. Metodología: se realizó una investigación cuantitativa comparativa transversal con una muestra de 130 adolescentes de ambos sexos a quienes se les administraron las pruebas Sistema Internacional de Imágenes Afectivas, el Test de la Mirada y el Índice de Reactividad Inter-personal. Resultados: los resultados de los análisis comprobaron la hipótesis, en algunas de las variables, de que los niveles socioeconómicos más bajos tienen niveles más bajos de habilidades de cognición social, especialmente en la teoría de la mente y la empatía, pero no en la evaluación emocional de las expresiones faciales. Discusión: la adolescencia es un periodo crítico del neurodesarrollo. Neurobiológicamente, duran-te este periodo ocurren cambios significativos en el denominado cerebro social. Conclusión: no todas las habilidades socio-cognitivas tienen la misma sensibilidad a los efectos ambientales durante su desarrollo

In this study a comparative analysis was made according to the socioeconomic stratum of three social cognition skills (theory of mind, empathy and emotion recognition) in a group of adolescents from Medellín. Methodology: a transversal comparative quantitative research was carried out with a sample of 130 adolescents of both sexes to whom the International System of Affective Images, the Gaze Test and the Interpersonal Reactivity Index were administered. Results: The results of the analyses proved the hypothesis, in some of the variables, that the lower socioeconomic levels have lower levels of social cognition skills, especially in the theory of mind and empathy, but not in the emotional evaluation of facial expressions. Discussion: Adolescence is a critical period of neurodevelopment. Neurobiologically, during this period significant changes occur in the so-called social brain. Conclusion: not all socio-cognitive skills have the same sensitivity to environmental effects during their development

Correlation between theory of mind and attempted suicide in adolescents with depressive disorder / 中华行为医学与脑科学杂志

Objective:To explore the difference of theory of mind between adolescent depressive disorder patients with and without suicide attempt and its correlation with depression severity.Methods:From September 2019 to April 2021, totally 56 cases of attempted suicide adolescent depression patients(suicide attempted group), and 78 non-attempted suicide adolescent depression patients (non-suicide attempted group) and 23 healthy controls (healthy control group) with matched sex, age and years of education were included.The 17-item Hamilton depression scale(HAMD-17) and mini-international neuropsychiatric interview (M. I. N. I. ) were evaluated in all the subjects for depression severity and suicide trait related clinical psychological scale, theory of mind-picture sequencing task (ToM-PST) includes primary belief, primary false belief, secondary belief, secondary false belief, third-level false belief, sense of reality, reciprocity, deception and deception detection, which were used to test the theory of mind of the three groups. SPSS 25.0 software was used to statistically analyze the data, compare the differences of ToM of the three groups, and Pearson correlation analysis was used to analyze the correlation between ToM of the attempted suicide group and the clinical behavior scale.Results:The suicide attempted group was significantly lower in understanding primary false belief ((2.46±0.63) vs (2.87±0.46)) than the healthy control group( P<0.05), and the understanding of deception((2.84±0.42) vs (2.63±0.61)) was significantly higher than the non-suicide attempted group( P<0.05), and the non-suicide attempted group was significantly lower in understanding primary false belief((2.48±0.72) vs ( 2.87±0.46)) and ToM total scores((50.86±6.60) vs (54.91±5.12)) than the healthy control group(both P<0.05). Pearson correlation analysis showed that the secondary false belief of the attempted suicide group were negatively correlated with the cognitive impairment( r=-0.267, P<0.05), and third-level false belief was negatively correlated with the cognitive impairment, retardation, and depressiontotal score( r=-0.331, r=-0.319, r=-0.269, all P<0.05). There was no significant correlation between primary belief, primary false belief, secondary belief, sense of reality, reciprocity, deception, deception detection, total score of picture ranking, total score of ToM and depression in suicide attempt group(all P>0.05). Conclusion:The ability to understand deception is different between depression adolescents with and without suicide attempt, and it is not correlated with the severity of depression.

Effect of theory of mind on non-suicidal self-injury behavior in adolescent patients with depressive disorder for the first hospitalization / 中华行为医学与脑科学杂志

Objective:To explore the characteristics of theory of mind(TOM) ability of adolescent depressive disorder patients with non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) behavior, and analyze the relationship between NSSI behavior and TOM, so as to identify patients with NSSI behavioral risk early and give timely intervention.Methods:A total of 54 adolescent patients with depressive disorder who were hospitalized for the first time in Shenzhen Kangning Hospital from May to October 2021 were enrolled.They were divided into NSSI group( n=31)and non-NSSI group( n=23)according to DSM-5.Hamilton anxiety rating scale-14 item (HAMA-14) and Hamilton depression rating scale-17 item(HAMD-17)were used to evaluate the severity of anxiety and depression.Hinting task, Yoni task and reading the mind in the eyes test(RMET) were used to test TOM of the two groups.Binary Logistic regression analysis in SPSS 22.0 was used to explore the influence of TOM ability on NSSI behavior of adolescents with depressive disordor. Results:Compared with patients in non-NSSI group, patients in NSSI had significantly higher scores of HAMA-14(21.48±4.92 vs 16.35±5.61, t=3.57, P<0.05) and HAMD-17(25.61±4.08 vs 21.43±4.64)( t=3.51, P<0.05). The patients in NSSI group had lower scores on the hinting task(16.10±2.84 vs 18.17±1.15, t=-3.68, P<0.05), RMET task (21.61±2.58 vs 23.61±3.07)( t=-2.59, P<0.05), and second-order cognitive TOM((18.90±3.70) vs (20.96±2.72), t=-2.27, P<0.05) and second-order affective TOM(28.84±3.93 vs 31.04±3.04)( t=-2.24, P<0.05) in Yoni task than those in non-NSSI group.Binary Logistic regression analysis showed effective TOM ( β=-0.306, OR=0.736, 95% CI= 0.552-0.982, P=0.037)and cognitive TOM ( β=-0.485, OR=0.616, 95% CI=0.396-0.957, P=0.031) were associated with non-suicidal self-injury in patients with depressive disorder. Conclusion:The increased impairment of the emotional component (decoding component) and cognitive component (reasoning component) of TOM may be risk factors for the occurrence of NSSI behavior in adolescent depressive disorder patients.

¿El entrenamiento en lectura de creencias puede influir sobre la competencia pragmática?: un estudio sobre las relaciones de estas capacidades cognitivas en la infancia / Can belief- reading training influence pragmatic competence? A study on the relationships of these cognitive abilities in childhood

Resumen Con el objetivo de indagar respecto a la influencia de la lectura de creencias sobre la competencia pragmática, en el presente estudio 56 niños de entre 48 y 54 meses pertenecientes al programa Buen Comienzo de la ciudad de Medellín participaron en un diseño experimental pre-post con grupo control. Para la evaluación de la lectura de creencias se adaptaron al español cuatro pruebas de la escala de Wellman y Liu (2004), mientras que para evaluar la competencia pragmática se adaptaron cuatro situaciones comunicativas propuestas por Sacco et al. (2008). Para la manipulación de la variable se llevaron a cabo 10 sesiones de entrenamiento en lectura de creencias. De acuerdo con los resultados intragrupo, el programa de entrenamiento fue efectivo para mejorar la variable entrenada, pues el grupo experimental mejoró su desempeño en la lectura de creencias (p = .007; d = -.663) y en la competencia pragmática (p = .007; d = .648); no obstante, aunque se encontraron diferencias significativas entre el grupo experimental y el grupo control para la lectura de creencias (p = .001; d = .472), no fue así para el desempeño en la competencia pragmática (p = .340; d = .143). A la luz de estos resultados, no es posible asegurar una relación de influencia de la lectura de creencias sobre la competencia pragmática; sin embargo, se encontró un modelo de regresión lineal satisfactorio cuando se incluyeron en los análisis variables sociodemográficas. Al final del artículo se discute respecto a la necesidad de integrar variables de contexto cuando se indaga por una posible relación de influencia de una variable psicológica sobre otra.

Abstract In order to investigate the influence of belief-reading on pragmatic competence, 56 children between 48 and 54 months old, belonging to the program Buen Comienzo [Good Start] in the city of Medellin, participated in a pre-post experimental design with a control group. For the evaluation of belief-reading, four tests of the Wellman and Liu (2004) Scale were adapted to Spanish; while for the evaluation of pragmatic competence, four communicative situations proposed by Sacco et., al. (2008) were adapted. For the manipulation of the variable, 10 training sessions in belief-reading were carried out. According to the intragroup results, the training program was effective in improving the trained variable, as the experimental group improved its performance in belief reading (p=,007; d= -,663) and pragmatic competence (p=,007; d=,648). However, although significant differences were found between the experimental group and the control group for belief reading (p=,001; d=,472), this was not the case for performance in pragmatic competence (p=,340; d=,143). In light of these results, it is not possible to ensure a relationship of influence of belief reading on pragmatic competence. Nevertheless, a satisfactory linear regression model was found when sociodemographic variables were included in the analyzes. The need to integrate context variables when inquiring about a possible relationship of influence of one psychological variable on another is discussed.

Regional brain atrophy is related to social cognition impairment in multiple sclerosis / La atrofia cerebral regional se relaciona con el deterioro de la cognición social en sclerosis múltiple

ABSTRACT Background: Multiple sclerosis exhibits specific neuropathological phenomena driving to both global and regional brain atrophy. At the clinical level, the disease is related to functional decline in cognitive domains as the working memory, processing speed, and verbal fluency. However, the compromise of social-cognitive abilities has concentrated some interest in recent years despite the available evidence suggesting the risk of disorganization in social life. Recent studies have used the MiniSEA test to assess the compromise of social cognition and have found relevant relationships with memory and executive functions, as well as with the level of global and regional brain atrophy. Objective: The present article aimed to identify structural changes related to socio-cognitive performance in a sample of patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. Methods: 68 relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis Chilean patients and 50 healthy control subjects underwent MRI scans and neuropsychological evaluation including social-cognition tasks. Total brain, white matter, and gray matter volumes were estimated. Also, voxel-based morphometry was applied to evaluate regional structural changes. Results: Patients exhibited lower scores in all neuropsychological tests. Social cognition exhibited a significant decrease in this group mostly related to the declining social perception. Normalized brain volume and white matter volume were significantly decreased when compared to healthy subjects. The regional brain atrophy analysis showed that changes in the insular cortex and medial frontal cortices are significantly related to the variability of social-cognitive performance among patients. Conclusions: In the present study, social cognition was only correlated with the deterioration of verbal fluency, despite the fact that previous studies have reported its link with memory and executive functions. The identification of specific structural correlates supports the comprehension of this phenomenon as an independent source of cognitive disability in these patients.

RESUMEN Antecedentes: La esclerosis múltiple presenta fenómenos neuropatológicos específicos que conducen a la atrofia cerebral global y regional. A nivel clínico, la enfermedad está relacionada con el deterioro funcional de los dominios cognitivos como la memoria de trabajo, la velocidad de procesamiento y la fluidez verbal. Sin embargo, el compromiso de las habilidades socio-cognitivas ha concentrado cierto interés en los últimos años debido a la evidencia disponible que sugiere el riesgo de desorganización en la vida social. Estudios recientes han utilizado la prueba MiniSEA para evaluar el compromiso de la cognición social y han encontrado relaciones relevantes con la memoria y funciones ejecutiva, así como con el nivel de atrofia cerebral global y regional. Objetivo: El presente artículo tiene como objetivo identificar cambios estructurales relacionados con el rendimiento sociocognitivo en una muestra de pacientes con esclerosis múltiple recurrente-remitente. Métodos: 68 pacientes Chilenos con esclerosis múltiple recurrente-remitente y 50 sujetos de control sanos se sometieron a resonancias magnéticas y evaluación neuropsicológica, incluidas las tareas de cognición social. Se estimaron los volúmenes cerebrales totales, de materia blanca y materia gris. Además, se aplicó la morfometría basada en vóxel para evaluar los cambios estructurales regionales. Resultados: Los pacientes muestran puntuaciones más bajas en todas las pruebas neuropsicológicas. La cognición social exhibe una disminución significativa en este grupo principalmente relacionada con la disminución de la percepción social. El volumen normalizado del cerebro y el volumen de la materia blanca disminuyeron significativamente en comparación con los sujetos sanos. El análisis regional de atrofia cerebral mostró que los cambios en la corteza insular y la corteza frontal medial están significativamente relacionados con la variabilidad del rendimiento sociocognitivo entre los pacientes. Conclusiones: En el presente estudio, la cognición social sólo se correlacionó con el deterioro de la fluencia verbal, a pesar de que estudios previos han reportado su vinculación con la memoria y funciones ejecutivas. La identificación de correlatos estructurales específicos apoya la comprensión de este fenómeno como una fuente independiente de discapacidad cognitiva en estos pacientes.