ABSTRACT
Droplet microfluidics technology offers refined control over the flows of multiple fluids in micro/nano-scale, enabling fabrication of micro/nano-droplets with precisely adjustable structures and compositions in a high-throughput manner. With the combination of proper hydrogel materials and preparation methods, single or multiple cells can be efficiently encapsulated into hydrogels to produce cell-loaded hydrogel microspheres. The cell-loaded hydrogel microspheres can provide a three-dimensional, relatively independent and controllable microenvironment for cell proliferation and differentiation, which is of great value for three-dimensional cell culture, tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, stem cell research, single cell study and many other biological science fields. In this review, the preparation methods of cell-loaded hydrogel microspheres based on droplet microfluidics and its applications in biomedical field are summarized and future prospects are proposed.
Subject(s)
Hydrogels/chemistry , Microfluidics/methods , Microspheres , Regenerative Medicine , Tissue Engineering/methodsABSTRACT
Objective@#To evaluate the inhibitory effect of tumor vaccines in colon carcinoma model mice.@*Methods@# Mouse bone marrow⁃derived dendritic cells（BMDCs）were stimulated by using CpG β⁃glucan nanoparticles（CNP）in vitro. The BMDCs were divided into PBS group，NP group（without CpG nanoparticles），Lysate group（MC38 cell lysate）and CpG group（CpG1826），which were determined for the expression of marker molecules on the surface by flow cytometry and for the contents of interleukin⁃6（IL⁃6）and IL⁃12p40 in the culture supernatant by ELISA. The tumor lysate nano⁃vaccine was pre⁃ pared by mixing 50 mg／mL tumor lysate（MC38 cell lysate）with 200 mg／mL CNP in a volume ratio of 1∶1，with which mice were subcutaneously immunized as Vaccine group. Vaccine group，PBS group，CNP group and Lysate group were im⁃ munized once a week，for three times in total. Mice were subcutaneously inoculated with MC38 cells，2 × 105 cells for each， in the right lower limb 1 h after the last immunization，and measured for tumor volume once every three days to plot the tumor growth curve. The ratios of CD3+ CD4+ T and CD3+ CD8+ T cells in the blood were analyzed by flow cytometry and the levels of tumor necrosis factor⁃α（TNF⁃α）and interferon γ（IFNγ）in the blood and spleen of mice were determined by ELISA.@*Results@# CNP effectively increased the expression of CD11c+ CD80+，CD11c+ CD86+，CD11c+ MHC⁃Ⅱ+ and the secretion of IL⁃6 and IL⁃12p40 in BMDCs in vitro，which were significantly higher than those in other 4 groups（t = 4. 3 ~ 46. 2，each P < 0. 05）. Compared with that of the other three groups，the tumor volume of mice in Vaccine group decreased significantly（t =2.6~3.4，eachP <0. 05）；TherewasnosignificantdifferenceinCD3+ CD8+ TandCD3+ CD8+ Tcellratios（t = 0.5~ 1. 9，each P > 0. 05）；The content of IFNγ in blood increased significantly（t = 3. 8 ~ 4. 6，P < 0. 05），while thatof TNF⁃α showed no significant difference（t = 0. 4 ~ 2. 0，each P > 0. 05）；However，the contents of IFN γ and TNF⁃α in spleen increased significantly（t = 6. 3 ~ 13. 0，each P < 0. 001）.@*Conclusion@#The prepared nano⁃vaccine of tumor lysate improvedtheimmune level in mice and effectively inhibited the growth of colon carcinoma.
ABSTRACT
Immunotherapy has become another effective tumor treatment after surgical resection, chemotherapy, radiotherapy and targeted therapy. However, due to the low immunogenicity of tumor cells and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, antigen-presenting cells inefficiently process and present tumor antigens, thus leading to insufficient activation of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and tumor infiltration, which significantly affects the effectiveness of tumor immunotherapy. In recent years, it has been demonstrated that multiple metal ions exhibit distinguished modulatory effects in activating innate immune stimulation and conquering acquired immune tolerance. Based on this, scientists have designed a series of nano-adjuvant delivery systems with metal ions or metal nanoparticles to enhance the targeted accumulation of metal ions in tumor tissues or lymphoid organs for efficiently inducing immunogenic cell death or directly activating antigen-presenting cells to initiate anti-tumor specific immune response. This review briefly outlines the role of various metal ions in anti-tumor immunomodulation, summarizes the research progress in using metal nanoadjuvant delivery systems to achieve efficient anti-tumor immunotherapy, and provides foresight on the main challenges and potential directions in this field.
ABSTRACT
Melanoma is the most aggressive skin malignant tumor, which is prone to early metastasis and relapse after treatment. Therapeutic tumor vaccines are new immunotherapies, which have the advantages of low toxicity and inhibiting tumor metastasis. Melanoma has a high mutation load and a large number of specific antigens. Currently, various types of tumor vaccines have been developed for melanoma, especially those based on dendritic cells (DC). Although the efficacy of therapeutic DC vaccines in melanoma has been confirmed by a number of studies, these vaccines still have problems such as insufficient immune effect and poor efficacy when used alone, and there is still a large room for improvement. In this paper, the current research status of therapeutic DC vaccines for melanoma was reviewed, and the research key points and optimization strategy of therapeutic DC tumor were prospected.
ABSTRACT
@#Objective To investigate the anti-melanoma immune effects of nano-tumor vaccine based on nano-adjuvant[CpG-coated nanoparticles(CNP)] and melanoma cell lysate antigen.Methods The immunoregulatory effects of CNP and melanoma cell lysate antigens on bone marrow-derived dendritic cells(BMDCs) and the regulatory effects on expression and secretion of cytokines IL-6 and IL-12 were investigated.After the mice inoculated with melanoma cells formed tumor,40C57BL/6N fermale mice with similar size of tumor were randomly divided into 4 groups:control(PBS) group,adjuvant(CNP) group,lysate(Lysate) group and vaccine(CNP+Lysate) group,which were administered subcutaneously once a week for 3 weeks.The tumor size of mice was recorded every 3 d and the tumor growth curve was drawn.The peripheral blood of mice was collected to detect the contents of IFN_γ and TNF_α,and immunohistochemical method was used to detect the infiltration of CD8~+T lymphocytes in tumor tissues.Results Compared with PBS,CpG and tumor lysate antigen groups,nano-vaccine adjuvant CNP effectively stimulated BMDCs maturation and promoted IL-6 and IL-12 secretion;Nanotumor vaccine showed good anti-tumor activity in vivo, the tumor size of mice in vaccine group decreased significantly,and the secretion levels of IFN_γ and TNF-α in serum were significantly higher than those in other groups;The infiltration of CD8~+T lymphocytes in tumor tissues of mice in vaccine group was also significantly better than that in other groups.Conclusion Nano-tumor vaccine effectively activated BMDCs,highly expressed immune factors,and also effectively inhibited tumor growth,showing good application potential.
ABSTRACT
Pancreatic cancer is one of the most common tumors in digestive system, which is characterized by insidious clinical symptoms, strong invasion, easy metastasis and high mortality. In recent years, immunotherapy is a new direction to the treatment of solid tumors, but its applica-tion in pancreatic cancer is limited by tumor microenvironment of pancreatic cancer. The authors systematically analyze the tumor microenvironment of pancreatic cancer, summarize the clinical researches related to pancreatic cancer immunotherapy, and discuss the prospect of pancreatic cancer immunotherapy.
ABSTRACT
Autologous cancer vaccine that stimulates tumor-specific immune responses for personalized immunotherapy holds great potential for tumor therapy. However, its efficacy is still suboptimal due to the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (ITM). Here, we report a new type of bacteria-based autologous cancer vaccine by employing calcium carbonate (CaCO3) biomineralized Salmonella (Sal) as an in-situ cancer vaccine producer and systematical ITM regulator. CaCO3 can be facilely coated on the Sal surface with calcium ionophore A23187 co-loading, and such biomineralization did not affect the bioactivities of the bacteria. Upon intratumoral accumulation, the CaCO3 shell was decomposed at an acidic microenvironment to attenuate tumor acidity, accompanied by the release of Sal and Ca2+/A23187. Specifically, Sal served as a cancer vaccine producer by inducing cancer cells' immunogenic cell death (ICD) and promoting the gap junction formation between tumor cells and dendritic cells (DCs) to promote antigen presentation. Ca2+, on the other hand, was internalized into various types of immune cells with the aid of A23187 and synergized with Sal to systematically regulate the immune system, including DCs maturation, macrophages polarization, and T cells activation. As a result, such bio-vaccine achieved remarkable efficacy against both primary and metastatic tumors by eliciting potent anti-tumor immunity with full biocompatibility. This work demonstrated the potential of bioengineered bacteria as bio-active vaccines for enhanced tumor immunotherapy.
ABSTRACT
Tumor vaccine is one of the most promising therapeutic strategies in tumor immunotherapy. It promotes the antigen presentation process by delivering tumor antigen and then activates the anti-tumor immune response. As a new class of vaccines, messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines can activate the immune system to achieve the purpose of immunotherapy by delivering the mRNA sequence of a specific antigen into the body and expressing the corresponding antigen protein. Compared with traditional vaccines, mRNA vaccines have the advantages of a short production cycle, high effectiveness, and strong immunogenicity. In recent years, the application of mRNA vaccines in tumor immunotherapy has attracted widespread attention, but the instability and low delivery efficiency of mRNA limit its application. Nano delivery system can effectively solve the problem of mRNA vaccine delivery, greatly promote the research process and clinical application of mRNA tumor vaccines, and has become a hot spot in the research of mRNA vaccines. In this review, we introduced the mRNA tumor vaccines, focusing on the application of nano delivery system in mRNA tumor vaccines, in order to provide new ideas and new methods for the efficient delivery of mRNA tumor vaccines and tumor immunotherapy.
ABSTRACT
Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is a category of highly heterogeneous and aggressive malignancy mainly originating from bile duct epithelial cells. The median survival time of untreated CCA patients is approximately 12?24 months, and the effectiveness and durability of surgical resection and neoadjuvant chemotherapy are limited. Results of the next-generation sequencing show that dysregulation of the immune system plays an important role in the pathogenesis of CCA. It has opened up new possibilities for the study of therapies targeting the natural course of aggressive CCA, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors, adoptive cell therapy, and tumor vaccines. Based on the current status of immunotherapy for CCA, the authors review the efficacy and dilemmas of current CCA immunotherapy strategies and look forward to the future treatment prospects of CCA.
ABSTRACT
The potential application of dendritic cells (DC) sensitized with cytosine-phosphoric acid-guanine (CpG) oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN) and tumor antigen as a vaccine against murine melanoma was investigated with freshly isolated mouse bone marrow-derived dendritic cells. For the DC vaccine preparation, DC were sensitized with the B16 tumor antigen and CpG ODN was used to promote further maturation of the DC. The immunogenic activity of the vaccine was evaluated in vitro by determining the proliferation of T lymphocytes and the killing effect of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) on B16 tumor cells. The DC vaccine was injected intraperitoneally and tumor inhibition in mice bearing B16 xenografts was examined. All mice were cared for under an approved SIMM Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) protocol. In vitro, this DC vaccine promoted the proliferation of T lymphocytes and showed a potent killing effect on the target B16 cells. In vivo experiments showed that after treatment or pre-immunization both the tumor volume and weight were significantly decreased. The DC vaccine with CpG ODN and tumor antigen exhibited an inhibitory effect against melanoma, providing a potential method for melanoma cancer treatment.
ABSTRACT
Objective:To investigate the influence of bacterial outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) tumor vaccine on tumor cell proliferation and CD8 + T cell infiltration of mouse with pancreatic cancer. Methods:The experimental study was conducted. The ovalbumin (OVA) lentivirus vector plasmid pLV-EF1a-hluc-P2A-mNeongreen-CMV-OVA-3Xflag-P2A-puro was used to construct the mouse pancreatic cancer Pan02-OVA cells. The ClyA-Catchers-OMVs (CC-OMVs) originated from Escherichia coli and labeled antigenic peptide SpyTag-OVA were used to construct the OMVs tumor vaccine. Mouse CD8 + T cells were stimulated by OMVs tumor vaccine, and the effects of OMVs tumor vaccine on inhibiting pancreatic cancer cells proliferation and stimulating CD8 + T cell infiltration were analy-zed by in vitro cell killing assay, including the OMVs tumor vaccine stimulated T cell group and the control T cell group, subcutaneous pancreatic cancer model, including the OMVs tumor vaccine group and the control group, and immunohistochemical staining. Observation indicators: (1) identification of mouse pancreatic cancer Pan02-OVA cells; (2) morphological observation of CC-OMVs; (3) inhibi-tion of mouse pancreatic cancer Pan02-OVA cells by OMVs tumor vaccine specific T cells; (4) inhibi-tion of mouse pancreatic cancer by OMVs tumor vaccine; (5) CD8 + T cell infiltration in pancreatic cancer tissue of mouse stimulated by OMVs tumor vaccine. Measurement data with normal distribu-tion were represented as Mean± SD, and comparison between groups was analyzed using the t test. Count data were described as absolute numbers or percentages. Results:(1) Identification of mouse pancreatic cancer Pan02-OVA cells. Results of laser scanning confocal microscopy showed that the mNeongreen fluorescence was expressed in Pan02-OVA cells infected with the OVA lentivirus vector plasmid of pLV-EF1a-hluc-P2A-mNeongreen-CMV-OVA-3Xflag-P2A-puro. Results of Flow cytometry showed that using the mouse pancreatic cancer Pan02 cells as references, the protein expression rate of Flag on the Pan02-OVA cells was 90.7%. (2) Morphological observation of CC-OMVs. Results of transmission electron microscopy analysis showed that the CC-OMVs were in spherical shape, with a diameter <50 nm. (3) Inhibition of mouse pancreatic cancer Pan02-OVA cells by OMVs tumor vaccine specific T cells. Results of cell proliferation toxicity test showed that the absorbance at 450 nm of mouse pancreatic cancer Pan02-OVA cells was 0.41±0.12 and 1.05±0.15 in the OMVs tumor vaccine-stimulated T cell group and the control T cell group, respectively, showing a significant difference between the two groups ( t=9.54, P<0.05). (4) Inhibition of mouse pancreatic cancer by OMVs tumor vaccine. The weight of subcutaneous tumor tissue in the back of mouse was (81±10)g and (153±17)g in the OMVs tumor vaccine group and the control group, respectively, showing a significant difference between the two groups ( t=8.26, P<0.05). (5) CD8 + T cell infiltration in pancreatic cancer tissue of mouse stimulated by OMVs tumor vaccine. Results of immuno-histochemical staining showed that the numbers of CD8 + T cells staining in the mouse back subcu-taneous tumor tissues was 28.7±3.5 and 9.3±1.5 in the OMVs tumor vaccine group and the control group, respectively, showing a significant difference between the two groups ( t=8.74, P<0.05). Conclusion:Bacterial OMVs tumor vaccine can inhibit proliferation of pancreatic cancer cells and increase the numbers of CD8 + T cells infiltrated in pancreatic cancer tissue of mouse.
ABSTRACT
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the malignant tumors with the highest morbidity and mortality in the world. The morbidity and mortality of HCC are increasing every year. Liver cancer is a serious threat to public health in China and the death rate of patients with liver cancer in China is the highest in the world. Beyond surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy, immunotherapy is an emerging treatment for cancer, which could control and kill tumor cells by relieving the inhibitory status of immune cells in the tumor microenvironment and activating the immune function of the body. Immune checkpoint inhibitors, adoptive immunotherapy and tumor vaccine are the major treatments of immunotherapy. Compared with traditional therapy methods, immunotherapy could enhance immune function, delay tumor progression, prolong the survival time of patients, and becomes a hotspot in the basic and clinical cancer research. This article reviews the research progress of immunotherapy for liver cancer.
Subject(s)
Humans , Cancer Vaccines , Carcinoma, Hepatocellular , Therapeutics , China , Immunotherapy , Liver Neoplasms , Therapeutics , Tumor MicroenvironmentABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE@#To investigate the regulatory effect of metformin on regulatory T cells (Treg) in acidic environment.@*METHODS@#CD4 CD25 Treg cells were obtained by magnetic bead sorting. Treg and conventional T cells (Tcon) cells were cultured for 24-72 h in pH 7.4 or pH 6.7 medium, and the cell proliferation, apoptosis and Foxp3 expression were detected by flow cytometry. Real-time PCR was used to detect the expression levels of the genes related with glucose metabolism. Thirty-two C57BL/6 male mouse models bearing subcutaneous prostate cancer xenograft derived from RM-1 cells were randomized into 4 equal groups for treatment with PBS, metformin, tumor vaccine, or both metformin and the vaccine. The treatment started on the 4th day following tumor cell injection, and metformin (100 mg/kg) or PBS was administered by intraperitoneal injection on a daily basis; the vaccine was intramuscularly injected every 4 days. The tumor size was continuously monitored, and the mice were euthanized on day 25 after tumor implantation to obtain tumor and blood samples. Flow cytometry was used to detect the changes in CD4, CD8, CD4Foxp3 cell subsets in the tumor tissue and peripheral blood.@*RESULTS@#Treg cells showed significantly enhanced proliferation ( < 0.05) while the proliferation of Tcon cells was suppressed in acidic medium ( < 0.001). Treg cells cultured in acidic medium showed significantly increased expressions of OXPHOS-related genes pgc1a ( < 0.001) and cox5b ( < 0.01), which did not vary significantly in Tcon cells in acidic medium. Treg cells exhibited significantly decreased apoptosis in acidic medium ( < 0.01) with increased Foxp3 cells ( < 0.001) and intracellular alkaline levels ( < 0.01). Metformin obviously reversed the acid tolerance of Treg cells without producing significant effect on Tcon cells. In the animal experiment, both metformin ( < 0.05) and vaccine ( < 0.01) alone reduced the tumor volume, but their combined treatment more potently reduced the tumor volume ( < 0.001). Metformin alone did not obviously affect CD4 cells or CD8 cells but significantly decreased the percentage of CD4Foxp3 ( < 0.05); the vaccine alone significantly increased CD4 cells and CD8 cells ( < 0.001) and also the percentage of CD4Foxp3 cells ( < 0.05). The combined treatment, while reducing the percentage of CD4Foxp3cells to a level lower than that in the vaccine group ( < 0.01), produced the strongest effect to increase CD4 cells and CD8 cells ( < 0.01).@*CONCLUSIONS@#Metformin can inhibit the proliferation and function of regulatory T cells in an acidic environment and enhance the effect of tumor vaccine by reducing the proportion of Treg cells to achieve the anti-tumor effect.
Subject(s)
Animals , Male , Mice , Cell Proliferation , Forkhead Transcription Factors , Metformin , Mice, Inbred C57BL , T-Lymphocytes, RegulatoryABSTRACT
Immunotherapy is the most active research area for cancer treatment. Tumor vaccine is one of the most developed aspects of cancer immunotherapy. Though tumor vaccine has made many breakthrough, it still faces many challenges. In this study, we coated the black phosphorus quantum dots (BPQDs) with cancer cell membrane to create a nanoparticle named BPQD-CCNVs. The BPQD-CCNVs were incubated with bone marrow-derived dendritic cells and irradiated with 808 nm infrared light. We tested the expression level of CD80, CD86 and MHC II of dendritic cells by flow cytometry after irradiation. All animal experiments approved by the Animal Experiments Ethical Committee of Tsinghua University. The results showed that the rise of medium's temperature caused by the photothermal effect of BPQDs could upregulate the expression of CD80, CD86 and MHC-II on dendritic cell surface. Based on these, we conclude that near infrared irradiation can stimulate the activation of dendritic cells. Our study may have provided a new strategy for tumor vaccine development.
ABSTRACT
@#Using the genetic code extension technology, the immunogenic amino acid, p-nitrophenylalanine, was introduced into the universal T cell epitope and then fused with the fragment of the extracellular region of the immune checkpoint molecular CD47(19-140)to construct a vaccine targeting CD47. The CD47-NitraTh vaccine elicited high titer antibody in BALB/c mice, significantly inhibited CT26 colon cancer cells growth, and increased the ratio of spleen CD4+ T cells and CD8+ T cells. Meanwhile, it promoted the polarization of naï ve T cells to Th1 cells. Notably, CD47-NitraTh not only increased the proportion of tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes but also reduced the proportion of Treg cells in tumour tissues, which means that CD47-NitraTh vaccine can remodel the tumour immunosuppressive microenvironment. The results of this study suggested that CD47-NitraTh can be used as an effective tumour vaccine candidate.
ABSTRACT
mRNA therapy, which involves the use of mRNAs as drugs for disease treatment, is a new kind of gene therapy. It can either treat diseases caused by gene deficiency or repair tissue through the expression of functional proteins, or be applied to immunothera-py through the expression of antigens, antibodies, or receptors, and is thus, of great value for various clinical applications. In tumor im-munotherapy, mRNA that encodes tumor-related antigens, or specific antigens, antibodies, or receptors enters the cytoplasm and is translated into proteins, which then induce specific immune responses, thereby enabling disease prevention and treatment. With the development of immunotherapy and mRNA technologies, mRNA therapy for malignant tumors and infectious diseases has entered the stage of clinical applications. This review briefly introduces the synthesis, purification, and modification of mRNA, with emphasis on mRNA-based tumor immunotherapy, clinical trial results, and key opportunities and challenges in the development of new drugs.
ABSTRACT
Gastric cancer is one of the most common malignant tumors worldwide,and it has become the second most common tu-mor following lung cancer in China.Surgery,radiotherapy,and chemotherapy are the predominant treatments for gastric cancer.Most patients are diagnosed when they have progressed to advanced cancer,although comprehensive treatment may cure some patients with early-stage gastric cancer.With the rapid development of medical immunology and molecular biology techniques,immunothera-py as a new treatment method has received extensive attention in the field of cancer therapy.Cancer immunology involves destroying tumor cells by activating and training the patient's immune system to recognize tumor cells as targets.This is the goal of tumor thera-py.Immunotherapeutic methods now include adoptive T-cell transfer,novel antibody constructs,cytokines,and cancer vaccines.In the last decade,researchers have obtained encouraging results in the field of cancer immunotherapy,especially with the use of check-point inhibitors.This article reviews the advances in immunotherapy for gastric cancer.
ABSTRACT
Objective@#To explore the method of extracting chaperone antigen peptide complexes from gastric cancer stem cells and its immune function.@*Methods@#Gastric cancer stem cells and gastric cancer cells were screened by low temperature ultrasonic lysis. After salting out and dialysis, the lysate supernatant was processed with SDS-PAGE to analyze the expression of chaperone antigen peptide complexes, and then was separated and purified with CNBr-activated SepharoseTM 4B. Reverse high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC), SDS-PAGE and Western blotting were used to analyze the purity and nature of the acquired albumen. Lymphocyte proliferation assay and lymphocytotoxicity assay were used to ditermine the immunological activity of the chaperone-antigen peptide complexes.@*Results@#The chaperone antigen peptide complexes of gastric cancer stem cells were prepared and identified successfully, of which the main components were the antigen peptides of HSP60, HSP70, HSP90 and HSP110. 0.75 μg and 1.00 μg HSP70-antigen peptide and 1.00 μg HSP90-antigen peptide activated lymphocytes significantly. Their A490 values were 0.26±0.03, 0.45±0.05 and 0.32±0.04, respectively, while the corresponding doses of HSP60-antigen peptide and HSP110-antigen peptide did not activate lymphocytes. The killing rates of 1.00 μg HSP70-antigen peptide and 1.00 μg HSP70 were (45.0±2.0)% and (16.0±2.0)%, respectively, showing a significant difference (P=0.012). Similarly, the killing rates of 1.00 μg HSP90-antigen peptide and 1.00 μg HSP90 were (36.0±5.0)% and (13.0±4.0)%, respectively, also showing a significant difference (P=0.048).@*Conclusions@#The amount of chaperone antigen peptide complexes in gastric cancer cells is extremely low, but it is obviously increased in gastric cancer stem cells. After purification, the chaperone antigen peptide complexes with high purity can be prepared. The extracted chaperone antigen peptide complexes have stronger immunogenicity, and can be used to make tumor vaccine in vitro, which may have a good application value in the targeted therapy of gastric cancer.
ABSTRACT
Tumor immunotherapy refers to the application of immunological principles and methods to stimulate and enhance the body's antitumor immune response as well as assist the immune system to kill tumors and inhibit tumor growth.These methods in-volve injecting immune cells and effector molecules into the host.Immunotherapy,especially immunoprecipitation treatment,has ex-erted a strong antitumor effect on melanoma,renal cell carcinoma,non-small cell lung cancer,and hematological malignancies.This method has also received widespread attention.However,in malignant glioma,immunotherapy is still in its infancy.Numerous clinical trials have shown that immunotherapy for glioma is feasible and safe.This paper reviews the latest advances in immunization strate-gies,such as immunological checkpoints,adoptive immunotherapy,and tumor vaccines,to provide new ideas for glioma treatment.
ABSTRACT
Tumor immunotherapy refers to the application of immunological principles and methods to stimulate and enhance the body's antitumor immune response as well as assist the immune system to kill tumors and inhibit tumor growth.These methods in-volve injecting immune cells and effector molecules into the host.Immunotherapy,especially immunoprecipitation treatment,has ex-erted a strong antitumor effect on melanoma,renal cell carcinoma,non-small cell lung cancer,and hematological malignancies.This method has also received widespread attention.However,in malignant glioma,immunotherapy is still in its infancy.Numerous clinical trials have shown that immunotherapy for glioma is feasible and safe.This paper reviews the latest advances in immunization strate-gies,such as immunological checkpoints,adoptive immunotherapy,and tumor vaccines,to provide new ideas for glioma treatment.