Computational identification of maize miRNA and their gene targets involved in biotic and abiotic stresses

Plant interactions with biotic and abiotic stresses are complex and entail changes at the transcriptional, cellularand physiological level. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small (*20–24 nt), non-coding RNAs that play a vital rolein wide range of biological processes involved in regulation of gene expression through translation inhibitionor degradation of their target mRNAs during stress conditions. Therefore, identification of miRNAs and theirtargets are of immense value in understanding the regulatory networks triggered during stress. Advancement incomputational approaches has opened up ways for the prediction of miRNAs and their possible targets withfunctional pathways. Our objective was to identify miRNA and their potential targets involved in both bioticand abiotic stresses in maize. A total of 2,019,524 downloaded ESTs from dbEST were processed and trimmedby Seq Clean. The program trashed 264,000 and trimmed 284,979 sequences and the resulting 1,755,534sequences were submitted for clustering and assembled to RepeatMasker and TGICL. A total of 30 miRNAswere found to hybridize with the potential targets of gene families such as CoA ligase, lipoxygenase 1,Terpenoideyclases, Zn finger, transducing, etc. Ten of the identified miRNAs targeted cytochrome c1 family.Zm_miR23 class targeted 11 different genes. The identified targets are involved in the plant growth anddevelopment during biotic and abiotic stresses in maize. These miRNAs may be further used for functionalanalysis. Furthermore, four and two of the miRNA targets were validated in response to waterlogging toleranceand southern leaf blight resistance, respectively, to understand the miRNA-assisted regulation of targetmiRNAs. The functional annotation of the predicted targets indicated that these stress-responsive miRNAsregulate cellular function; molecular function and biological process in maize at the post-transcriptional level.The present results have paved way towards better understanding the role of miRNAs in the mechanism ofstress tolerance in maize.

Effect of different vermicompost doses and water stress conditions on plant growth and biochemical profile in medicinal plant, Moringa oleifera Lam

Aim: The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of different vermicompost application rates on growth, protein and chlorophyll content in leaves of Moringa oleifera under water stress in a greenhouse experiment.Methodology: Soil samples and seeds were collected and characterized. Seedlings grown in a greenhouse in polyethylene bags with 4 kg of soil were subjected to water stress. After 90 days, agronomic variables, chlorophyll and protein content and peroxidase activity were estimated for each treatment and each condition in Moringa oleifera. Results: The results showed that under non-water stress conditions, the levels of vermicompost at a fertilization rate of 500 kg N ha-1 resulted in a significant increase in chlorophyll content, as compared to unamended soil. However, under waterlogging conditions, there was a significant difference between control and vermicompost treatments. Interpretation: The results indicated that addition of vermicompost to soil improved the growth and photosynthetic rate of Moringa oleifera under stress-free and water-deficit conditions. However, protein content only increased significantly when vermicompost was added at a fertilizer application rate of 500 kg N ha-1 both under waterlogging and deficit conditions

Morphological and anatomical aberrations induced by waterlogging in sugarcane

Aim: The present investigation was carried out to study root anatomy of sugarcane cultivars (CoLk 94184 and CoJ64) planted under waterlogged condition through Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Methodology: Two sugarcane (Saccharum spp. hybrid) cultivars, CoLk 94184 and CoJ 64 were evaluated for changes in root anatomy in response to waterlogging during 2017-2018. For waterlogging treatment, crop was grown in deep plot which was waterlogged upto a depth of 1 m during active grand growth stage (monsoon season) along with untreated control plot. After three months of waterlogging, the plants were uprooted to study the root morphology and anatomy through SEM. Results: Waterlogged plants showed aerial root formation in both the cultivars but number and mass were higher in CoJ64. Aerenchyma was formed in the cortical region of both control and waterlogging roots but the size was relatively increased in waterlogged. Irregular and damaged surface cells with longer root hairs were observed in waterlogging treatment. Waterlogged roots exhibited cell distortion, loss of uniformity in endodermis and pericycle regions and higher number of metaxylem vessels. Interpretation: The study concluded that waterlogging treatment caused structural anomalies and induced anatomical and surface ultra-structural changes in both the cultivars, but the level of deformation was relatively higher in genotype CoJ 64, indicating sensitivity towards waterlogging as compared to cultivar CoLk 94184.

Assessment of waterlogging induced physio-biochemical changes in sugarcane varieties and its association with waterlogging tolerance

Aim: The aim of the present investigation was to study the effect of waterlogging on growth and physiological behaviour of sugarcane varieties, and to evaluate these in relation to waterlogging tolerance to identify reliable physiological parameters for screening sugarcane genotypes for waterlogging tolerance.. Methodology: Ten sugarcane varieties including four tolerant and one sensitive were planted under waterlogged and non waterlogged (control) conditions. Waterlogging was imposed for 70 days at the crop age of 120 days, thereafter water was completely drained. Based on relative cane weight (% waterlogged/control), the ranking of varieties was done for waterlogging tolerance. Changes in cane weight, stalk growth rate, internode length, chlorophyll stability index and antioxidant enzyme activity were measured at the end of waterlogging. Leaf samples were analysed for nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium content. Correlation between waterlogging tolerance and different traits was assessed. Results: Based on relative cane weight (% waterlogged/control), CoLk 94184 was found to be the most waterlogging tolerant variety while CoJ 64 the most sensitive. Waterlogging remarkably reduced stalk growth rate and a significant positive correlation was found between waterlogging tolerance and stalk growth rate during waterlogging. The average internode length of sugarcane varieties increased by 11% in waterlogging as compared to control. Tolerant varieties had high chlorophyll stability index than sensitive one showing that tolerant varieties had less chlorosis in waterlogging. Waterlogging caused a significant increase in antioxidant enzyme activity of catalase, peroxidase and superoxide dismutase, however these increase were higher in tolerant varieties. Waterlogging induced severe deficiencies of N, P and K in sugarcane; the leaf N and K concentration were below critical deficiency level. A strong positive correlation was found between leaf K content and waterlogging tolerance. Interpretation: Stalk growth rate, chlorophyll stability index and leaf potassium concentration during waterlogging were identified as efficient physiological traits for screening the sugarcane varieties for waterlogging tolerance.

Community structure and species composition of a periodically flooded Restinga forest in Caraguatatuba, São Paulo, Brazil / Estrutura e composição de espécies de uma floresta de Restinga periodicamente alagada em Caraguatatuba, São Paulo, Brasil

Abstract: The aim of this study was to characterize the structure and composition of the tree and shrub community in a 77-ha fragment of Restinga forest in Caraguatatuba, São Paulo, Brazil. In this fragment, forty 20 × 20-m plots (1.6 ha) were systematically allocated and all trees with a stem diameter at breast height (DBH) ≥4.8 cm were sampled. Sixteen plots were randomly chosen to also sample individuals with a DBH of between 1 and 4.8 cm. All individuals were tagged, identified to species level, and their diameters and heights were measured. A total of 2587 individuals (1616 ind./ha) from 119 species and 42 families were found with a DBH >4.8 cm, and 2659 individuals (4154 ind./ha) from 125 species and 38 families were found with a DBH >1 cm. The richest families were Myrtaceae, Lauraceae, and Fabaceae, and the most abundant species were Diospyros brasiliensis (Ebenaceae), Anaxagorea dolichocarpa (Annonaceae), and Euterpe edulis (Arecaceae). The structure of the studied site was similar to that of other Restinga forest sites, but the forest composition was quite distinct. Implications for the conservation and restoration of Restinga forests in this region are discussed in light of the results obtained.

Resumo: O objetivo deste estudo foi caracterizar a estrutura e composição da comunidade arbórea e arbustiva em um fragmento de 77 ha de floresta de Restinga em Caraguatatuba, São Paulo. Neste fragmento, 40 parcelas de 20 × 20 m (1,6 ha) foram distribuídas sistematicamente e todas as árvores com diâmetro do tronco na altura do peito (DAP) ≥4,8 cm foram amostradas. Além disso, 16 parcelas foram escolhidas aleatoriamente para amostrar também todos os indivíduos com DAP entre 1 e 4.8 cm de DAP. Todos os indivíduos foram marcados, identificados ao nível de espécie e tiveram seu diâmetro e altura medidos. Para indivíduos acima de 4,8 cm de DAP, foi amostrado um total de 2587 indivíduos (1616 ind./ha) em 119 espécies e 42 famílias. Para indivíduos acima de 1 cm de DAP, foi amostrado um total de 2659 indivíduos (4154 ind./ha) em 125 espécies e 38 famílias. As famílias mais ricas foram Myrtaceae, Lauraceae e Fabaceae. As espécies mais abundantes foram Diospyros brasiliensis, Anaxagorea dolichocarpa e Euterpe edulis. Quando comparado com outros locais de florestas de Restinga, a estrutura florestal do fragmento estudado é semelhante a outras florestas de Restinga. No entanto, a composição da floresta é bastante distinta, evidenciando a heterogeneidade das florestas de Restinga ao longo da costa do Brasil. Implicações para a conservação e restauração das florestas de Restinga são destacadas.

Growth responses and accumulation of soluble sugars in Inga marginata Wild. (Fabaceae) subjected to flooding under contrasting light conditions / Respostas de crescimento e acúmulo de açúcares solúveis em Inga marginata Willd. (Fabaceae) submetida ao alagamento e sob condições contrastantes de luminosidade

Abstract Flood events in riparian forests of southern Brazil, can be characterized as unpredictable and of low magnitude with an average duration of less than 15 days. Inga marginata is an evergreen tree which grows in Southeast South America on a wide range of environments, including riparian forests. In this paper, the interactive effects of the light environment and soil flooding on morphological parameters of I. marginata were examined. Seedlings were acclimated in two contrasting light conditions: sun or shade for 30 days. Sun and shade plants were subjected to soil flooding for two periods; five or 15 days. After 5 days, the interaction between flooding and light did not affect growth, chlorophyll content and dry mass or the root-shoot ratio. After 15 days, flooded plants from the sunny treatment had a lower shoot dry mass compared to control sun plants and flooded plants from the shaded treatment. Moreover, the higher dry mass observed for shade plants compared to sun plants, following flooding, can also be directly associated with a higher content of soluble sugars. Shade plants of I. marginata showed a greater acclimation to soil waterlogging. This acclimation appears to be associated with a larger accumulation of soluble sugars compared to non-flooded plants. The responses observed on the shade plants appear to be decisive to indicate the use of I. marginata in degraded areas.

Resumo As inundações em florestas ripárias do Sul do Brasil, podem ser caracterizadas como imprevisíveis e de baixa magnitude com uma duração média de menos de 15 dias. Inga marginata é uma árvore que cresce no sudeste da América do Sul em uma grande variedade de ambientes, incluindo matas ciliares. Neste trabalho, os efeitos combinados da luminosidade e do e alagamento do solo nos parâmetros morfológicos de I. marginata foram examinados. As plântulas foram aclimatadas em duas condições contrastantes de luminosidade: sol e sombra por 30 dias. Plantas de sol e sombra foram submetidas ao alagamento do solo por dois períodos; cinco ou 15 dias. Após 5 dias, a interação entre a inundação e luminosidade não afetou o crescimento, teor de clorofila e massa seca e a razão raiz-parte aérea. Após 15 dias, plantas de sol sob inundação apresentaram menor massa seca na parte aérea em relação as plantas controle de sol e as plantas alagadas de sombra. Além disso, a maior massa seca observada nas plantas de sombra em comparação com plantas de sol, sob inundação, pode ser diretamente associado com um maior teor de açúcares solúveis. Plantas de sombra de I. marginata mostraram uma maior aclimatação ao encharcamento do solo. Esta aclimatação parece estar associada com um maior acúmulo de açúcares solúveis em comparação com as plantas não-inundadas. As respostas observadas nas plantas de sombra parecem ser determinantes para a indicação do uso de I. marginata em áreas degradadas.

Plant zonation in a tropical irregular estuary: can large occurrence zones be explained by a tradeoff model? / Zonação vegetal em um estuário tropical irregular: amplas zonas de ocorrência podem ser explicadas por um modelo tradeoff?

AbstractEstuaries present an environmental gradient that ranges from almost fresh water conditions to almost marine conditions. Salinity and flooding are the main abiotic drivers for plants. Therefore, plant zonation in estuaries is closely related to the tidal cycles. It is expected that the competitive abilities of plants would be inversely related to the tolerance toward environmental stress (tradeoff). Thus, in estuaries, plant zonation tends to be controlled by the environment near the sandbar and by competition away from it. This zonation pattern has been proposed for regular non-tropical estuaries. For tropical estuaries, the relative importance of rain is higher, and it is not clear to what extent this model can be extrapolated. We measured the tidal influence along the environmental gradient of a tropical irregular estuary and quantified the relative importance of the environment and the co-occurrence degree. Contrary to the narrow occurrence zone that would be expected for regular estuaries, plants presented large occurrence zones. However, the relative importance of the environment and competition followed the same patterns proposed for regular estuaries. The environmental conditions allow plants to occur in larger zones, but these zones arise from smaller and infrequent patches distributed across a larger area, and most species populations are concentrated in relatively narrow zones. Thus, we concluded that the zonation pattern in the Massaguaçu River estuary agrees with the tradeoff model.

ResumoEstuários apresentam um gradiente ambiental que varia de condições próximas a de água doce a condições quase marinhas. A salinidade e o alagamento são os principais fatores abióticos para as plantas. Por isso, a zonação vegetal em estuários está proximamente relacionada aos ciclos da maré. É esperado que as habilidades competitivas das plantas sejam inversamente relacionadas à tolerância ao estresse ambiental (tradeoff). Assim, em estuários, a zonação vegetal tende a ser controlada pelo ambiente, próximo à barra, e pela competição, longe da mesma. Esse padrão de zonação tem sido proposto para estuários regulares não tropicais. Para estuários tropicais, a importância relativa da chuva é maior, e não é claro até que ponto esse modelo pode ser extrapolado. Nós medimos a influência da maré ao longo do gradiente ambiental de um estuário tropical irregular e quantificamos a importância relativa do ambiente e o grau de correlação. Contrariamente à ocorrência estreita que seria esperada para estuários regulares, as plantas apresentaram amplas zonas de ocorrência. No entanto, a importância relativa do ambiente e da competição seguiram os mesmos padrões propostos para estuários regulares. As condições ambientais permitem às plantas ocorrerem em zonas mais amplas, mas estas zonas resultam de pontos ocasionais, e as populações da maioria das espécies estão concentradas em zonas relativamente estreitas. Desse modo, concluímos que o padrão de zonação no estuário do Rio Massaguaçu está de acordo com o modelo tradeoff.

Atividade de enzimas fermentativas em raízes e nódulos de soja sob condições de hipóxia e pós-hipóxia / Fermentative enzymes activity in soybean roots and nodules under hypoxia and post-hypoxia conditions

O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a atividade de enzimas fermentativas em raízes e nódulos de soja (Glycine max) sob condições de hipóxia e pós-hipóxia. Os genótipos Fundacep 53 RR e BRS Macota foram cultivados em vasos de 3L contendo vermiculita como substrato em associação com Bradyrhizobium elkanii em casa de vegetação. No estádio R2, o sistema radicular das plantas foi submetido à hipóxia pelo encaixe de um segundo vaso sem perfurações e inundado com solução nutritiva diluída a 1/3 da concentração original, por 8 dias. Posteriormente, foram retirados os vasos sem perfurações para avaliação da recuperação. O material vegetal foi coletado no 2º, 4º, 6º e 8º dias após a inundação ou recuperação, juntamente com os controles para a dosagem da atividade das enzimas álcool desidrogenase (ADH), piruvato descarboxilase (PDC) e lactato desidrogenase (LDH) em raízes e nódulos. Os dados foram submetidos à ANOVA e comparados pelo teste de Tukey a 5% de probabilidade. As atividades da ADH, PDC e LDH foram fortemente estimuladas com a inundação, especialmente em nódulos, e diminuíram com a recuperação, em ambos os genótipos. Fundacep 53 RR respondeu de forma mais efetiva aos efeitos dos tratamentos.

This study aimed to evaluate the activity of fermentative enzymes in soybean (Glycine max) roots and nodules under hypoxia and post-hypoxia conditions. The soybean genotypes Fundacep 53 RR and BRS Macota associated with Bradyrhizobium elkanii were grown in 3L pots containing vermiculite as substrate under greenhouse conditions. Root system of plants at the R2 stage was subjected to hypoxia by blocking drainage of the pot, by fitting a second one without holes and flooded with nutrient solution diluted one-third of the original. The flooding of the plants was carried out for eight days and after, the pot without drilling was removed for recovery assessment. Non-waterlogged plants were kept as control. Activities of the fermentation enzymes alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) were quantified in roots and nodules collected at 2, 4, 6 and 8 days after flooding or recovery. Data were analyzed by ANOVA and compared by the Tukey test (P ≤ 0,05). Activities of ADH, PDC and LDH were hardly stimulated during flooding, especially in nodules, in both genotypes and decreased with recovery. Fundacep 53 RR responded more effectively to treatment effects.

Response of antioxidative and ethanolic fermentation enzymes in maize seedlings of tolerant and sensitive genotypes under short term waterlogging.

Fifteen days old seedlings of waterlogging tolerant (Parkash) and sensitive (Paras) maize genotypes were subjected to short term waterlogging (18 h) under field conditions. Activities of various antioxidative and anaerobic metabolism enzymes were investigated in leaf and root tissues. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity increased in leaf tissue while glutathione reductase (GR) activity was enhanced in leaf as well as root in both the genotypes. However, tolerant genotype had better induction capability of SOD and GR in roots in comparison with sensitive genotype. Catalase activity increased in roots of both genotypes. Waterlogging caused strong induction in alcohol dehydrogenase activity in the roots of Paras and Parkash under stress conditions. Aldehyde dehydrogenase activity was significantly increased only in roots of Parkash in response to waterlogging. In comparison with sensitive genotype, the tolerant genotype had low H2O2 and malondialdehyde content in roots under stress conditions. The present studies suggested that tolerant genotype had a greater protective ability due to higher induced activities of antioxidant and ethanolic fermentation systems than Paras.

Role of antioxidant and anaerobic metabolism enzymes in providing tolerance to maize (Zea mays L.) seedlings against waterlogging.

The present investigation was undertaken to identify the possible mode of mechanism that could provide tolerance to maize (Zea mays L.) seedlings under waterlogging. Using cup method, a number of maize genotypes were screened on the basis of survival of the seedlings kept under waterlogging. Two tolerant (LM5 and Parkash) and three susceptible (PMH2, JH3459 and LM14) genotypes were selected for the present study. Activities of antioxidant and ethanolic fermentation enzymes and content of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), glutathione and ascorbic acid were determined in roots of these genotypes after 72 h of waterlogging. Waterlogging treatment caused decline in activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) in all the genotypes. However, only susceptible genotypes showed slight increase in glutathione reductase (GR) activity. Significant reduction in APX/GR ratio in susceptible genotypes might be the cause of their susceptibility to waterlogging. The tolerant seedlings had higher GR activity than susceptible genotypes under unstressed conditions. Stress led to decrease in H2O2 and increase in glutathione content of both tolerant and susceptible genotypes, but only tolerant genotypes exhibited increase in ascorbic acid under waterlogging conditions. In the tolerant genotypes, all the enzymes of anaerobic metabolism viz. alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) and pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC) were upregulated under waterlogging, whereas in susceptible genotypes, only ADH was upregulated, suggesting that efficient upregulation of entire anaerobic metabolic machinery is essential for providing tolerance against waterlogging. The study provides a possible mechanism for waterlogging tolerance in maize.

Avaliação de três características fisiológicas em 4 ciclos de seleção no cultivar de milho BRS-4154 sob o solo encharcado / Evaluation of three physiologic characteristics in four cycles of selection in maize cultivar BRS-4154 under tolerance to waterlogging of the soil

Conduziu-se este trabalho, com o objetivo de avaliar plantas de milho (Zea mays L.) dos diferentes ciclos de seleção recorrentes da variedade de milho BRS 4154 - 'Saracura' quanto aos ganhos genéticos obtidos ao longo dos ciclos de seleção sob encharcamento do solo. Quatro ciclos de seleção da variedade de milho BRS 4154 foram plantados sob delineamento em blocos casualizados nos quais foram avaliados os ciclos 1, 5, 9 e 15, incluindo a variedade BR 107 e o híbrido simples BRS 1010 como testemunhas, por serem sensíveis ao encharcamento. Foram avaliados: fluorescência e teor de clorofila, área foliar e porosidade de raiz. O estresse causado pelo excesso de água no solo não influenciou a característica fluorescência da clorofila, demonstrando que essa não é uma boa característica para avaliação de tolerância ao encharcamento do solo. Houve uma significativa redução de área foliar do milho nas áreas de solo encharcado. Adicionalmente, a porosidade da raiz foi uma característica que apresentou significativa discrepância entre os dois ambientes de cultivo, tendo um aumento significativo em função do encharcamento.

This work aimed to evaluate plants of different cycles of recurrent selection of the maize (Zea mays L.) variety BRS 4154 - 'Saracura' for the genetic faced to the gains obtained along the selection cycles under waterlogging of the soil. Four cycles of selection of the maize variety BRS 4154 were planted in randomized block outline for evaluation of cycles 1, 5, 9 and 15, including the variety BR 107 and the simple hybrid BRS 1010 used as control, once they are sensitive to the waterlogging. One evaluated: chlorophylls fluorescence and content, leaf surface area and root porosity. The stress caused by the excess of water in the soil didn't influence the characteristic of chlorophyll fluorescence, demonstrating this is not a good characteristic to evaluate flooding tolerance. There was significant leaf surface area decrease of the corn in the areas of soaked soil. Additionally, the porosity of the root was a characteristic that presented significant discrepancy between the two cultivation environments, having a significant increase in function of waterlogging.

A year in a Cerrado wet grassland: a non-seasonal island in a seasonal savanna environment / Um ano em um campo úmido no Cerrado: uma ilha não-estacional em um ambiente de savana estacional

In some Cerrado regions where the water table is superficial and soils are hydromorphic, we may find wet grasslands. We studied temporal changes in some community descriptors, such as species density, plant density, basal area, and cylindrical volume in a Cerrado wet grassland in four different seasons of the year. We also compared the species richness and composition of the wet grassland with a hyperseasonal cerrado, and a seasonal cerrado. We found significant differences among the seasons only for species density. Chao-Sørensen similarity values varied from 0.86 to 0.99 and, in the wet grassland, were not different among the seasons. On the contrary, similarity values between the wet grassland and hyperseasonal and seasonal cerrados were low. Species richness was lower in the wet grassland and higher in the seasonal cerrado. As long as savannas are highly dynamic on all temporal and spatial scales, the wet grassland stability, at least in a short-term view, introduces an important heterogeneity in regional scale. Wet grasslands are also important in the Cerrado domain to increase b-diversity, since they are floristically dissimilar with cerrado vegetation.

Dentro do domínio do Cerrado, os campos úmidos ocorrem em áreas em que o lençol freático é superficial e os solos são hidromórficos. Nosso objetivo foi estudar mudanças temporais em alguns descritores da comunidade, como riqueza de espécies, densidade de espécies, densidade de indivíduos, área basal e volume cilíndrico em um campo úmido em quatro estações do ano. Além disso, comparamos a riqueza e a composição de espécies do campo úmido com um cerrado hiperestacional e outro estacional. Encontramos diferenças significativas entre as estações apenas para a densidade de espécies. Os valores do índice de similaridade Chao-Sørensen variaram entre 0,86 e 0,99 e, no campo úmido, não foram significativamente diferentes entre as estações. Porém, a similaridade foi baixa, quando comparamos o campo úmido com os cerrados hiperestacional e estacional. A riqueza de espécies foi menor no campo úmido e maior no cerrado estacional. A estabilidade do campo úmido introduz uma heterogeneidade importante em escala regional, uma vez que as savanas são bastante dinâmicas em escalas espácio-temporais. Os campos úmidos são importantes no domínio do Cerrado por aumentarem a diversidade b, já que são dissimilares em relação ao cerrado.

Soil characteristics of a hyperseasonal cerrado compared to a seasonal cerrado and a floodplain grassland: implications for plant community structure

Savannas may be divided according to their seasonality into semi-seasonal, seasonal, hyperseasonal, or marshy savannas. Hyperseasonal savannas are characterized by the alternation of two contrasting stresses during each annual cycle, one induced by drought and fire and the other, by waterlogging. In South America, the largest savanna region is the Brazilian cerrado, in which there are few hyperseasonal areas that become waterlogged in the rainy season. The cerrado soils are generally well drained, but in central Brazil there is a small cerrado area in which the soil is poorly drained and which becomes waterlogged in the middle of the rainy season, allowing the appearance of a hyperseasonal cerrado. As long as soil is important in the ecology of the cerrado vegetation, we asked whether the waterlogging in this hyperseasonal cerrado implied that there were differences in soil characteristics in relation to a seasonal cerrado, which is not waterlogged in the rainy season, and to a floodplain grassland, which remains waterlogged throughout the year. In each environment, we randomly selected ten points, in which we collected soil samples in the mid-rainy season for chemical and granulometric analyses. For all variables, we found significant differences among the three environments, at least at one of the depths. Nevertheless, when we took into account all the variables together, we observed that the soils under the hyperseasonal and seasonal cerrados were similar and both were different to the soil under the floodplain grassland. The soil under the floodplain grassland was related to larger amounts of clay, silt, organic matter, phosphorus, aluminium, aluminium saturation, cation exchange capacity, and sum of bases, whereas soils under hyperseasonal and seasonal cerrados were related to higher pH values, base saturation, calcium, magnesium, and sand. As long as the soil under both cerrados was chemically and physically similar, the duration of waterlogging in the hyperseasonal cerrado is not long enough to alter its soil characteristics. Limitations to the plants growing on the hyperseasonal cerrado soil must be a consequence of the direct effects of flooding. Since cerrado plant species are dryland ones, the hypoxia caused by waterlogging may limit the number of cerrado species able to withstand these conditions.

As savanas podem ser divididas de acordo com a sua estacionalidade em savanas semi-estacionais, savanas estacionais, savanas hiperestacionais ou esteros. Savanas hiperestacionais são caracterizadas pela alternância de dois estresses contrastantes durante cada ciclo anual, um induzido pela seca e fogo e outro, pelo alagamento. A maior região de savana na América do Sul é o cerrado brasileiro, que apresenta poucas áreas hiperestacionais, que se tornam alagadas durante a estação chuvosa. Os solos de cerrado são geralmente bem drenados, mas há, no Brasil central, uma pequena área de cerrado em que o solo é pobremente drenado e que se torna alagada no meio da estação úmida, possibilitando o aparecimento de um cerrado hiperestacional. Como o solo é importante para a ecologia da vegetação do cerrado, nós nos perguntamos se o alagamento no cerrado hiperestacional implicava diferenças nas características edáficas em relação ao cerrado estacional, que não alaga durante a estação chuvosa, e ao campo úmido, que permanece alagado durante o ano todo. Em cada ambiente, nós sorteamos dez pontos, em que coletamos amostras de solo, no meio da estação chuvosa, para análises químicas e granulométricas. Para todas as variáveis, encontramos diferenças significativas entre os três ambientes, ao menos em uma profundidade. Não obstante, quando analisamos todas as variáveis edáficas conjuntamente, observamos que os solos sob os cerrados hiperestacional e estacional foram semelhantes e ambos foram diferentes do solo sob o campo úmido. O solo sob campo úmido relacionou-se a maiores quantidades de argila, silte, matéria orgânica, fósforo, alumínio, saturação por alumínio, capacidade de troca catiônica e soma de bases, enquanto que os solos sob cerrados hiperestacional e estacional relacionaram-se a maiores valores de pH, areia, saturação por bases, cálcio e magnésio. Uma vez que os solos sob os dois tipos de cerrado foram similares química e fisicamente, a duração do alagamento no cerrado hiperestacional não é suficiente para alterar as suas características edáficas. Limitações para as plantas crescendo no cerrado hiperestacional devem ser conseqüência dos efeitos diretos do alagamento. Como as espécies vegetais de cerrado são espécies de áreas secas, a hipoxia causada pelo alagamento pode limitar o número de espécies de cerrado que são capazes de suportar essa condição.

Studies on the Effect of Vinyl Mulching on Pleurotus Cultivation: Control of Mushroom Diseases on Pleurotus ostreatus (II)

Perforated vinyl mulching technique was performed on oyster mushroom beds for controlling mushroom diseases. Mycelium under vinyl sheets were safely protected from outside undesirable microorganisms. One of two mushroom farms showed 75% of disease incidence, the other 40% and National Institute of Agricultural Science and Technology (NIAST) 13% in the conventional growing method, whereas 12%, 14%, and 5% in the vinyl mulching cultivation method. Waterlogging caused mushroom bed worse, and Trichoderma spp. were infested on the conventional mushroom bed. Disease incidence investigated in other case was 25% to 30% in the conventional growing method, whereas 5 to 9% in the vinyl mulching cultivation method. Yields in conventional method were 6.5 to 7.2 kg/m2 and those in vinyl mulching method were 7.6 to 8.1 kg/m2. So it was suggested that vinyl mulching technique was good for prevention from disease and elevation of productivity.

Studies on the Effect of Vinyl Mulching on Pleurotus Cultivation: Bunch Formation on Pleurotus sajor-caju (III)

Perforated vinyl mulching technique was performed on Pleurotus sajor-caju beds to assess fruitbody formation. Individual fruitbody of P. sajor-caju was transformed into bunch type on vinyl mulching bed. It was effective to grow the mushroom without waterlogging and abortion of small pins on the beds as well as hygienical bed management. A bunch showed 79 fruitbodies and 225 g of weight. Available site for fruiting was reduced up to 20% in comparison of 100% for conventional bed. The color of fruitbody turned on brownish white from treated vinyl mulching bed.

Seasonal changes of leaf Nitrogen content in trees of Amazonian floodplains

In Amazonian floodplains the trees are exposed to extreme flooding of up to 230 days a year. Waterlogging of the roots and stems affects growth and metabolic activity of the trees. An increased leaf fall in the aquatic period and annual increment rings in the wood indicate periodical growth reductions. The present study aims at documenting seasonal changes of metabolism and vitality of adult trees in the annual cycle as expressed by changes of leaf nitrogen content. Leaves of six tree species common in floodplains in Central Amazonia and typical representants of different growth strategies were collected every month between May 1994 and June 1995 in the vicinity of Manaus, Brazil. Mean leaf nitrogen content varied between 1.3% and 3.2% in the non-flooded trees. Three species showed significantly lower content in the flooded period (p=0.05, 0.001, 0.001), the difference ranging 20-25% lower than in the non-flooded period. Two species showed no significant difference while Nectandra amazonum showed 32% more in the flooded season (p=0.001). Leaf nitrogen content was generally high when new leaves were flushed (in the flooded period) and decreased continuously thereafter in all species. Three species showed an additional peak of nitrogen during the first month of the terrestrial phase, in leaves which had flushed earlier, indicating that flooding may disturb nitrogen uptake.

Em áreas inundáveis da Amazônia as árvores estão expostas a extremos de inundação de até 230 dias por ano. A submersão das raízes e do tronco afeta o crescimento e as atividades metabólicas das árvores. O aumento da queda de folhas na fase aquática e o incremento anual nos anéis do lenho, indicam reduções de crescimento periódicas. O presente estudo visa documentar em um ciclo anual mudanças sazonais no metabolismo e vitalidade de árvores adultas, expressas pelas mudanças no conteúdo de nitrogênio das folhas. Seis espécies de árvores comuns em áreas inundáveis da Amazônia Central e típicos representantes de diferentes estratégias de crescimento, tiveram suas folhas coletadas a cada mês entre maio de 1994 e junho de 1995, nas cercanias da cidade de Manaus, Brasil. A média do conteúdo de nitrogênio variou entre 1,3% e 3,2% em árvores não inundadas. Três espécies tiveram concentrações de significativamente menores no período de inundação (p = 0,05, 0,01, 0,01), sendo 20 a 25% menores que as concentrações no período não inundado. Duas espécies não tiveram diferenças significativas, enquanto Nectandra amazonum teve 32 % mais quando inundada (p = 0.001). O conteúdo de nitrogênio foliar foi geralmente alto quando brotaram folhas novas (no período inundado) seguido por um decréscimo contínuo, embora três espécies atingiram seu pico de conteúdo de no primeiro mês da fase terrestre, em folhas que haviam brotadas antes, indicando que a inundação possivelmente inibe a assimilação de nitrogênio.