Spatial-temporal variation of dissolved inorganic material in the Amazon basin / Variação espaço-temporal do material inorgânico dissolvido na bacia Amazônica

The Amazon River basin is important in the contribution of dissolved material to oceans (4% worldwide). The aim of this work was to study the spatial and the temporal variability of dissolved inorganic materials in the main rivers of the Amazon basin. Data from 2003 to 2011 from six gauging stations of the ORE-HYBAM localized in Solimões, Purus, Madeira and Amazon rivers were used for this study. The concentrations of Ca2+, Na+, K+, Mg2+, Cl-, SO4 -2, HCO3 - and SiO2 were analyzed. At the stations of Solimões and Amazon rivers, the concentrations of Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO3 - and SO4 -2 had heterogeneous distribution over the years and did not show seasonality. At the stations of Madeira river, the concentration of these ions had seasonality inversely proportional to water discharge (dilution-concentration effect). Similar behavior was observed for the concentrations of Cl- and Na+ at the stations of the Solimões, Amazon and Madeira rivers, indicating almost constant release of Cl- and Na+ fluxes during the hydrological cycle. K+ and SiO2 showed almost constant concentrations throughout the years and all the stations, indicating that their flows depend on the river discharge variation. Therefore, the temporal variability of the dissolved inorganic material fluxes in the Solimões and Amazon rivers depends on the hydro-climatic factor and on the heterogeneity of the sources. In the Madeira and Purus rivers there is less influence of these factors, indicating that dissolved load fluxes are mainly associated to silicates weathering. As the Solimões basin contributes approximately 84% of the total flux of dissolved materials in the basin and is mainly under the influence of a hydro-climatic factor, we conclude that the temporal variability of this factor controls the temporal variability of the dissolved material fluxes of the Amazon basin.

A bacia do rio Amazonas é importante no aporte de material dissolvido para o oceano (4% a nível mundial). O objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar a variabilidade espaço-temporal do material inorgânico dissolvido nos principais rios da bacia Amazônica, para o qual foram utilizados dados entre 2003 e 2011 de seis estações hidrológicas do ORE-HYBAM localizadas nos rios Solimões, Purus, Madeira e Amazonas, analisados Ca2+, Na+, K+, Mg2+, Cl-, SO4 -2, HCO3 - e SiO2. Nas estações do rio Solimões e Amazonas as concentrações de Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO3 - e SO4 -2 tiveram distribuição heterogênea ao longo dos anos e não apresentaram sazonalidade. Nas estações do rio Madeira a concentração desses íons mostraram sazonalidade inversamente proporcional à vazão (efeito diluição-concentração). Comportamento similar tiveram Cl- e Na+ nas estações dos rios Solimões, Amazonas e Madeira, indicando liberação quase constante desses fluxos ao longo do ciclo hidrológico. K+ e SiO2 apresentaram concentrações quase constantes ao longo dos anos e entre as estações, indicando que seus fluxos dependem da variação da vazão. Portanto, a variação temporal do fluxo de material inorgânico dissolvido no rio Solimões e Amazonas depende do fator hidroclimatológico e da heterogeneidade das fontes. Nos rios Madeira e Purus há menor influência desses fatores, o que evidencia maior aporte dos silicatos. Como a bacia do Solimões aporta aproximadamente 84% do fluxo total de material dissolvido na bacia e está sob influência, principalmente, do fator hidroclimático, pode-se concluir que a variabilidade temporal desse fator controla a temporalidade dos fluxos do material dissolvido na bacia Amazônica.

The mineralogy and chemistry of the German and Portuguese tiles used to face a historic building in the Amazon region and their natural susceptibility to tropical weathering / Mineralogia e química de azulejos Alemães e Portugueses de prédios históricos na região Amazônica e sua susceptibilidade natural à degradação tropical (intemperismo)

During the 19th century, the most prominent buildings of the city of Belém were faced entirely with tiles manufactured in Portugal and Germany, which now exhibit distinct degrees of degradation. The Pinho mansion is one of the most important of these buildings and was selected for the investigation of the action of the tropical Amazonian climate on the degradation of the tiles. To achieve this objective, the tiles were mapped for organic and inorganic degradation, and samples were collected for analysis. The minerals were determined by XRD, the chemical composition by classical wet methods and SEM/EDS, and the microorganisms under the microscope. The results show that the German and Portuguese tiles are quite different in their composition. While both ceramic bodies are composed of SiO2 and Al2O3, CaO was found only in the Portuguese tile. The low Na2O and K2O contents indicate the addition of materials to reduce the fusion temperature. SiO2 and PbO are the main constituents of the glaze, with CoO and FeO being added as pigment. The ceramic body of the German tiles is constituted of quartz, mullite, and cristobalite, in contrast with the Portuguese tiles, which are made of quartz, gehlenite, diopside, calcite, and feldspars. The glazes are XRD-amorphous. The chemical and mineralogical differences between the German and Portuguese tiles indicate that they were produced from different raw materials under distinct thermal processes. The most prominent weathering-related modifications are the thin layers (German tiles), oxidation stains, dark stains, the detachment of the tile (Portuguese tiles), loss of the glaze and powdering of the ceramic body (Portuguese tiles) through the establishment of Cyanophyta and Bacillariophyta.. The distinct degradation patterns of the tiles exposed to the tropical Amazon climate are a consequence of their distinct mineralogy and chemistry.

As proeminentes edificações da cidade de Belém foram revestidas durante o século 19 com azulejos produzidos em Portugal e Alemanha que já apresentam distintos graus de degradação. O Palacete Pinho é uma das mais importantes destas edificações e foi selecionado para se investigar a ação do clima tropical amazônico sobre a degradação destes azulejos. Para atingir estes objetivos mapearam-se os azulejos desta edificação visando identificar as modificações de origem orgânica e inorgânica e coletas de amostras para análises. Os minerais foram determinados por DRX, a composição química por métodos clássicos úmidos e MEV/SED e os micro-organismos por microscopia. Os resultados obtidos mostram que os azulejos Portugueses e Alemães são distintos entre si. Enquanto o biscoito é composto de SiO2 e Al2O3, CaO foi encontrado apenas nos Portugueses. Os baixos conteúdos de Na2O e K2O indicam adição de materiais para redução da temperatura de fusão. SiO2 e PbO compõem o vidrado, já CoO e FeO foram adicionados como pigmentos. O biscoito dos azulejos Alemães é constituído de quartzo, mullita e cristobalita, ao contrário do Português com quartzo, gehlenita, diopsídio, calcita e feldspatos. Os vidrados são amorfos ao DRX. As diferenças químicas e mineralógicas entre os azulejos Portugueses e Alemães indicam que foram produzidos por matéria prima distinta, bem como processo termal. As alterações relacionadas com o intemperismo são as finas camadas de detritos (nos Alemães), manchas de oxidação, manchas escuras, descolamento do azulejo (no Português); perda de vidrado e biscoito tornando-se pulverulento como consequência do estabelecimento de Cyanophyta e bacillariophyta (Português). As distintas feições de degradação dos azulejos refletem as suas diferenças mineralógicas e químicas expostas ao clima tropical Amazônico.

Enfoque químico del deterioro y biodeterioro de rocas calcáreas conformantes de monumentos patrimoniales de importancia histórica y cultural / Cheical standpoiintabout deterioration and biodeterioration of callcareous rocks that make part of cultural heritage moumments

Los monumentos pétreos declarados como patrimonio histórico son deteriorados a través del tiempo por efecto de agentes físicos, químicos y medioambientales. Estos últimos dependen en gran medida de la ubicación geográfica del inmueble, dichos agentes son: el régimen de vientos que desgasta la roca erosionándola; temporadas de lluvia que al contener sales disueltas causan corrosión por reacciones químicas de estas con la matriz del material calcáreo solubilizando el carbonato de calcio el cual es su principal componente; radiación solar durante todo el año causante de decoloramiento; humedad que permite el establecimiento de formas de vida. Las actividades antropogénicas que no son amigables con el ambiente son otro factor determinante, las emisiones de gases vehiculares por ejemplo, deterioran en gran medida los monumentos de piedra antiguos por ser agentes ácidos altamente corrosivos. Se crean así las condiciones para el establecimiento y proliferación de organismos vivos en la piedra tales como bacterias, algas, hongos, líquenes y plantas que por ser invasivos y colonizadores causan biodeterioro. Dado que los metabolismos de estas especies involucran el consumo de sustratos químicos orgánicos e inorgánicos presentes en la roca, son otro factor que va en detrimento de la estabilidad, durabilidad, y apariencia estética de la misma.

Stony monuments declared as cultural world heritage are deteriorated through the years because of physical, chemical and environmental agents which depend largely on their geographic location. Among these agents are: gust of, winds that wear away the stone eroding it; rainy seasons which bring dissolved salts and cause corrosion because of their chemical reaction with the calcareous material matrix which solubilizes calcium carbonate which is their main component; because of solar radiation all through the year stones lose their color; high humidity allows plants and living forms to grow. Anthropogenic activities which are not environmentally friendly are other important factor: vehicle gas emissions, for example, deteriorate greatly old stone monuments because they are highly corrosive acids. This way, optimal conditions are created for fungi, algae, bacteria, lichens and plants which are invasive and colonizing to live on the stone surface and cause biodeterioration. Since metabolisms of these species involve consumption of inorganic substrates that are present in the stones, they become another factor affecting monument's durability, stability, and aesthetic appearance.

A Study on Mineral Changes on the Weathering Human Hair after Burial using EDX / 대한법의학회지

This study was undertaken to investigate mineral changes in weathered scalp hair after burial. EDX (energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy) analysis was performed to measure the presence of minerals on the hair surface. Twelve scalp hairs, buried for 5-40 years, were chosen from deceased individuals buried in tombs in Soha-Ri, Kyonggi-Do, and other regions in Korea. Three normal hairs were used as the control group. EDX data showed that carbon, oxygen, and sulfur were detected in hair collected from all three burial grounds. In contrast, calcium was only detected in hair collected from tombs in Soha-ri. The amounts of calcium and sulfur were found to decrease with time for hair collected from tombs in Soha-ri. Similar results were observed with sodium for hair collected from other regions. These results show region specific mineral detection and a decrease in the concentration of minerals with time. Consequently, it is suggested that changes in minerals concentration in weathered hair could be used as basic data in the field of forensic medicine.

TEM Observation on the Weathering Human Scalp Hair after Burial / 체질인류학회지

This study was undertaken to investigate the morphological changes of scalp hair according to weathering after burial and to offer basic data for forensic science. To examine the effect of weathering degree, the 51 human scalp hairs buried after death were taken from deceased individuals in tombs in Korea. The morphological changes in weathering hair shafts of the scalp were investigated using the transmission electron microscopes (TEM). There were little morphological differences of weathering depending on the burial period. The weathering changes includes detachment of cuticle layer, aggregation of macrofibril and hollow formation in the cortex according to the burial period. These results could provide basic data to the field of forensic medicine.

TEM Observation on the Weathering Human Scalp Hair after Burial / 체질인류학회지

This study was undertaken to investigate the morphological changes of scalp hair according to weathering after burial and to offer basic data for forensic science. To examine the effect of weathering degree, the 51 human scalp hairs buried after death were taken from deceased individuals in tombs in Korea. The morphological changes in weathering hair shafts of the scalp were investigated using the transmission electron microscopes (TEM). There were little morphological differences of weathering depending on the burial period. The weathering changes includes detachment of cuticle layer, aggregation of macrofibril and hollow formation in the cortex according to the burial period. These results could provide basic data to the field of forensic medicine.

SEM Observation on the Weathering Human Hair after Burial / 체질인류학회지

This study was undertaken to investigate the morphological changes of hair according to weathering after burial and to offer basic data for forensic science. To examine the effect of weathering degree, the 45 hairs buried for 5~50 years were taken from deceased individuals in tombs in Korea. The morphological changes in weathering hair shafts of the scalp were investigated using the scanning electron microscopes. There were little morphological differences of weathering depending on the regions of burial. The weathering changes includes exclusion of cuticle, separation of hair cortex and hollow formation in the medulla according to the burial period. These results could provide basic data to the field of forensic medicine.

Coexistence of halloysite and kaolinite: a study on the genesis of kaolin clays of Campo Alegre Basin, Santa Catarina State, Brazil

Kaolin at Campo Alegre Basin, Santa Catarina State, Brazil was formed from alteration of volcanic acid rocks. Halloysite clays dominate the clay fraction of the matrix of the kaolin body, whereas a poorly crystalline kaolinite is abundant in veins. Some primary blocky structures have high amounts of illite, in one mine, but in general, only low contents of illite-smectite, illite, chlorite-vermiculite, vermiculite and quartz were identified in the clay fraction of the samples. Toward the top of the mines, hematite and lepidocrocite appear in horizontal red and ochre colored levels and the amount of kaolinite increases compared to halloysite. The vertical zoning of alteration levels, the changes in mineralogy, the positive correlation between depth and Cation Exchange Capacity of the clays, the preservation of different types of rock textures in the kaolin bodies, the dominant tube morphology of the halloysite clays indicate a supergene genesis for the deposits. Criteria to distinguish between supergene and hypogene kaolin are discussed. Transmission Electron Microscopy of the cross sections of halloysite tubes showed polygonal forms that are ascribed to be transitional between kaolinite and halloysite. It is proposed that some of the kaolinite of these deposits be inherited from the dehydration of halloysite tubes.

O caolim da Bacia de Campo Alegre, Estado de Santa Catarina, Brasil, formou-se da alteração de rochas vulcânicas ácidas. A haloisita predomina na fração argila da matriz do corpo de caolim, enquanto a caolinita, de baixa cristalinidade, é abundante nos veios. Algumas estruturas em blocos, primários, têm altos teores de ilita em uma mina, mas no geral, somente foram identificadas, na fração argila das amostras, baixas quantidades de ilita-esmectita, ilita, clorita-vermiculita, vermiculita e quartzo. Em direção ao topo das minas aparecem hematita e lepidocrocita em níveis vermelhos e ocres e as quantidades de caolinita aumentam, se comparadas às de haloisita. O zoneamento vertical dos níveis de alteração, as mudanças mineralógicas, a correlação positiva entre profundidade e Capacidade de Troca de Cátions das argilas, a preservação de diferentes tipos de textura de rochas nos corpos de caolim e o predomínio da morfologia tubular da haloisita indicam uma origem supergênica para os depósitos. São discutidos critérios para distinguir entre caolins supergênicos e hipogênicos. A Microscopia Eletrônica de Transmissão das secções transversais dos tubos de haloisita mostrou formas poligonais que são atribuídas a transições entre caolinita e haloisita. Propõe-se que algumas das caolinitas destes depósitos sejam herdadas da desidratação de tubos de haloisita.