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Aims@#The primary aim of this study was to utilize abundant palm oil mill effluent (POME) waste and turn it into a value-added product of biomass fuel with high calorific energy value (CEV) via fermentation and drying process, then simultaneously reduce abundant liquid waste.@*Methodology and results@#POME is available abundantly in Malaysia and only a small portion of it is utilized to produce other value-added products. In this study, fermentation of POME in the presence of bacteria (Lysinibacillus sp.) and fungus (Aspergillus flavus) separately at 37 °C, 180 rpm for 5 days, followed by overnight oven-drying at 85 °C was conducted. Four fermentation medium conditions were performed, viz.: (1) autoclaved POME, (2) autoclaved POME with the addition of Lysinibacillus sp., (3) autoclaved POME with the addition of A. flavus and (4) POME as it is (non-sterile).@*Conclusion, significance and impact of study@#Among all conditions, fermentation utilizing autoclaved POME in the presence of A. flavus evinced the highest CEV of 25.18 MJ/kg. The fermentation in the presence of Lysinibacillus sp. strain revealed high COD and BOD removal efficiency of 59.20% and 320.44 mg/L as well as the highest reduction of oils and grease among other groups with the value of 15.84%. Future research directions are proposed for the elucidation of co-fermentation in the presence of both Lysinibacillus sp. and A. flavus.
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Palm Oil , Biomass , Biofuels , Waste Disposal, FluidABSTRACT
Objective To investigate the prevalence of exposure to cooking-based polluting fuels and biofuels of residents aged over 40 years in some regions of Hunan Province, and to provide a basis for future prevention and control of the pollutant fuels. Methods The present survey was carried out on residents from five chronic obstructive pulmonary disease surveillance sites in Hunan Province in 2019. A multi-stage stratified cluster sampling strategy was conducted to determine resident participants for the present study. A face-to-face inquiry survey was used to collect the relevant data of the participants. After complex weighting of the samples, the prevalence of residents’ exposure to the pollutant fuel and biofuel was analyzed. Results A total of 2 981 residents aged 40 years and above were included in the analysis. With complex weighting, the exposure rate of polluting fuels and biofuels were 19.69%（95%CI：18.11%-21.27%）and 16.14%（95%CI：14.66%-17.62%）, respectively, among residents aged over 40 years in Hunan. The exposure rates of polluting fuels and biomass fuels were both higher in females than males, and higher in rural areas than urban areas (both P<0.05). The exposure rates of polluting fuels and biomass fuels both decreased with age and education level (both P<0.05). Conclusion The use of polluting fuels and biomass fuels for cooking among residents aged 40 years and above is still popular in some regions of Hunan Province. Appropriate measures should be taken toward rural women to reduce their exposure to polluting fuels and biofuels.
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Exposure to biomass fuel smoke has detrimental health effects causing chronic diseases. This study investigated the relationship between biomass fuel smoke exposure and hypertension among the rural Bangladeshi women. A total of 410 women aged 19–60 years were enrolled in this study during April–May 2017 who regularly cooked with biomass fuel in traditional cook stove for the past ?1 year. Self-reported daily cooking hours and lifetime cooking experience of the participants were recorded, and their blood pressure was measured. Participants' age ?40 years, parental history of hypertension, body mass index ?25 kg/m2, and cumulative exposure to biomass smoke were found to be the significant risk factors of hypertension. Every 1 year increase in cumulative exposure to biomass smoke eventually exacerbated the risk of hypertension by 61% (adjusted odds ratio 1.61, 95% confidence interval: 1.16–2.22; P < 0.01). This study provides evidence that long-term exposure to biomass fuel smoke is associated with hypertension.
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Hemoglobin is the protein molecule present in red blood cells that carries O from the lungs to the body tissues and returns CO from the 2 2 tissues back to the lungs. The red blood cells have the ability to concentrate hemoglobin in the cell fluid up to about 34 grams in each 100 ml of cells. Anemia refers to a reduced oxygen carrying capacity of blood either due to reduced red blood cell count or decreased hemoglobin concentration. Anemia in women apart from many other causes is possibly due to the result of systemic inflammation which is probably because of the smoke of biomass fuels. To study correlation between hemoglobin levels and use of biomass fuel (wood) for cooking by females in rural areas of Lucknow district. The examination was done on the 44 females between 18 to 55 years of age and cooking food using biomass fuels for at least 5 years. Women who were pregnant, having history of bleeding disorders like hemophilia and Thalassaemia, history of tobacco intake, history of medications like steroids and history of hemorrhoids were excluded from the study. Examination of the blood sample for hemoglobin estimation was collected in the rural health training center (RHTC) of Era's Lucknow medical college and Hospital and hemoglobin estimation was done in the hospital lab services (HLS) Era's Lucknow medical college and hospital, which use fully analyzing method SYSMEX XS 8001for hemoglobin estimation . The correlation between biomass fuel (wood) smoke and hemoglobin levels was strongly positive and statistically highly significant (p= 0.004). The decrease in hemoglobin levels due to exposure to indoor air pollution resulting from the burning of biomass fuels in smoky fires for cooking have important implications for diagnosis of anemia.
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BACKGROUND@#Little is known regarding the effect of exposure to biomass fuel smoke inhalation on respiratory symptoms in the Bangladeshi population which is a major health hazard in most of the developing countries. This study aims to explore the association between respiratory symptoms and biomass fuel smoke exposure among children under 5 years of age.@*METHODS@#Data were extracted from the Bangladesh Urban Health Survey conducted in 2013. A total of 10,575 mothers with at least one surviving children were selected. Respiratory symptoms among children under 5 years of age were considered as the primary outcome. Sequential multiple logistic regression models were used to observe the association between respiratory symptoms and biomass fuel smoke exposure adjusting the effect of residential factors and mother and child characteristics.@*RESULTS@#Around 40% of the mothers exclusively used biomass fuel irrespective of the kitchen location and 54% of them were habituated in indoor cooking. The prevalence of respiratory symptoms of under-five children among in-house and outdoor biomass fuel users was 23.0% and 21.9%, respectively. Results of fitted multiple logistic regression models showed that the odds of having respiratory symptoms among children under 5 years of age were increased due to in-house biomass fuel use [OR = 1.18; 95% CI, 1.04-1.36] compared with the non-biomass user. An increased risk of respiratory symptoms was also significantly associated with mother's birth complication [OR = 1.51; 95% CI, 1.36-1.67], non-government organization (NGO) membership of mothers [OR = 1.32; 95% CI, 1.16-1.51], age of the child (6-23m) [OR = 1.29; 95% CI, 1.10-1.52], and nutritional status (stunting) [OR = 1.18; 95% CI, 1.06-1.31].@*CONCLUSION@#This study found the use of in-house biomass fuel as a significant risk factor associated with respiratory symptoms of children under 5 years of age. More longitudinal studies should be designed to establish a causal relationship between HAP (household air pollution) and respiratory symptoms among children with more direct measures of HAP and clinical procedure.
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Objective To understand the prevalence of biomass fuel exposure in women aged ≥40 years in China during 2014-2015,and provide evidence for the prevention and control of bio-fuel exposure.Methods All participants were selected from a national representative cross-sectional survey during 2014-2015 in the mainland of China.A multi-stage stratified cluster sampling strategy was used.A total of 37 795 women aged ≥40 years received a face-to-face questionnaire survey at 125 surveillance points in 31 provinces.The level of biomass fuel exposure was analyzed after complex sample weighting to represent the overall Chinese women aged ≥40 years.Results A total of 37 777 women were included in the analysis.With complex weighting,the rate of biomass fuel exposure in Chinese women aged ≥40 years was 35.8％ (95％CI:29.6％-42.1％),the exposure rate was higher in rural women than in urban women (P＜0.001).The biomass fuel exposure rate was highest in northeastern and lowest in northern areas of China (x2=17.03,P=0.009).The estimated biomass fuel exposure rate decreased with the increase of educational level (P＜ 0.001).Conclusion The prevalence of biomass fuel exposure is high in women aged ≥40 years in China,especially in those in rural areas.The exposure level differs with age and area.Appropriate measures should be taken to reduce the level of biomass fuel exposure in Chinese women.
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Objective To analyze the status and distribution characteristics of household polluting fuel use in China.Methods The data were collected from the adults aged ≥40 years who were recruited through multi-stage stratified cluster sampling in 2014-2015 COPD surveillance conducted in 31 provinces (autonomous regions and municipalities) in China.A total of 75 107 adults aged ≥40 years in 125 surveillance points were surveyed in face to face interview.Polluting fuels included biomass fuels (wood,dung,crop residues and charcoal),coal (including coal dust and lignite) and kerosene.The weighted percentage of family using polluting fuels,combustion method for cooking or heating and ventilation installation with 95％ CI were estimated by complex sampling design.Results According to the survey results from 75 075 adults,the percentage of family using polluting fuels for cooking or heating was 59.9％ (95％CI:54.2％-65.7％),the percentage in rural areas was significantly higher than that in urban areas (P＜0.001).As for different polluting fuels,the percentage of using only biomass fuels for cooking or heating was 25.9％ (95％CI:20.5％-31.3％),the percentage of using only coal (including kerosene) was 18.9％ (95％CI:13.2％-24.7％),and the percentage of using both biomass fuels and coal was 15.1％ (95％CI:10.8％-19.4％).Among seven geographic areas in China,the percentages of using biomass fuels ranged from 53.8％ in southern China to 23.0％ in northem China (P=0.039),the percentages of using coal (including kerosene) ranged from 59.5％ in northwestern China to 22.3％ in southern China (P=0.001).Among the families using polluting fuels,the percentages of mainly using traditional open fires and stoves were 21.3％ (95％CI:16.9％-25.8％)and 31.5％ (95％CI:25.8％-37.2％),respectively;the percentage of having ventilation installation was 72.7％ (95％CI:66.9％-78.5％).Conclusions Household polluting fuel use is common in China,but differs with area,traditional fuel combustion method is widely used,the coverage of ventilation installation need to be improved.In order to promote COPD prevention and control,it is necessary to develop strategies on fuels and fuel combustion method improvement to reduce indoor air pollution resulted from household fuel combustion.
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Objective To understand the prevalence of biomass fuel exposure in women aged ≥40 years in China during 2014-2015,and provide evidence for the prevention and control of bio-fuel exposure.Methods All participants were selected from a national representative cross-sectional survey during 2014-2015 in the mainland of China.A multi-stage stratified cluster sampling strategy was used.A total of 37 795 women aged ≥40 years received a face-to-face questionnaire survey at 125 surveillance points in 31 provinces.The level of biomass fuel exposure was analyzed after complex sample weighting to represent the overall Chinese women aged ≥40 years.Results A total of 37 777 women were included in the analysis.With complex weighting,the rate of biomass fuel exposure in Chinese women aged ≥40 years was 35.8％ (95％CI:29.6％-42.1％),the exposure rate was higher in rural women than in urban women (P＜0.001).The biomass fuel exposure rate was highest in northeastern and lowest in northern areas of China (x2=17.03,P=0.009).The estimated biomass fuel exposure rate decreased with the increase of educational level (P＜ 0.001).Conclusion The prevalence of biomass fuel exposure is high in women aged ≥40 years in China,especially in those in rural areas.The exposure level differs with age and area.Appropriate measures should be taken to reduce the level of biomass fuel exposure in Chinese women.
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Objective To analyze the status and distribution characteristics of household polluting fuel use in China.Methods The data were collected from the adults aged ≥40 years who were recruited through multi-stage stratified cluster sampling in 2014-2015 COPD surveillance conducted in 31 provinces (autonomous regions and municipalities) in China.A total of 75 107 adults aged ≥40 years in 125 surveillance points were surveyed in face to face interview.Polluting fuels included biomass fuels (wood,dung,crop residues and charcoal),coal (including coal dust and lignite) and kerosene.The weighted percentage of family using polluting fuels,combustion method for cooking or heating and ventilation installation with 95％ CI were estimated by complex sampling design.Results According to the survey results from 75 075 adults,the percentage of family using polluting fuels for cooking or heating was 59.9％ (95％CI:54.2％-65.7％),the percentage in rural areas was significantly higher than that in urban areas (P＜0.001).As for different polluting fuels,the percentage of using only biomass fuels for cooking or heating was 25.9％ (95％CI:20.5％-31.3％),the percentage of using only coal (including kerosene) was 18.9％ (95％CI:13.2％-24.7％),and the percentage of using both biomass fuels and coal was 15.1％ (95％CI:10.8％-19.4％).Among seven geographic areas in China,the percentages of using biomass fuels ranged from 53.8％ in southern China to 23.0％ in northem China (P=0.039),the percentages of using coal (including kerosene) ranged from 59.5％ in northwestern China to 22.3％ in southern China (P=0.001).Among the families using polluting fuels,the percentages of mainly using traditional open fires and stoves were 21.3％ (95％CI:16.9％-25.8％)and 31.5％ (95％CI:25.8％-37.2％),respectively;the percentage of having ventilation installation was 72.7％ (95％CI:66.9％-78.5％).Conclusions Household polluting fuel use is common in China,but differs with area,traditional fuel combustion method is widely used,the coverage of ventilation installation need to be improved.In order to promote COPD prevention and control,it is necessary to develop strategies on fuels and fuel combustion method improvement to reduce indoor air pollution resulted from household fuel combustion.
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Objective. The present study was undertaken to explore the clinico-pathological profile of bronchogenic carcinoma among females. Methods. One hundred and twenty-four female patients with histopathologically proven bronchogenic carcinoma who were hospitalised in the Department of Pulmonary Medicine, King George’s Medical University, Lucknow from July 1985 to February 2007 were retrospectively studied. Results. Their mean age was 61 years; 12.9 % of these were less than 40 years of age. Of these, 79% of female patients of lung cancer were first regarded as pulmonary tuberculosis; 76% belonged to rural area. Use of biomass fuel and kerosene oil exposure was the predominant risk factors evident among the 116 non-smoker women. Adenocarcinoma was observed in 43.5%, followed by squamous cell carcinoma in 33.1% and the remaining 23.4% cases were small cell carcinoma. The majority (77.4%) of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients had advanced stage disease (IIIb and IV) and 58 % of small cell lung cancer (SCLC) patients had limited disease and 42 % of SCLC patients had extensive disease at the time of diagnosis. Conclusion. Adenocarcinoma was found to be the most common histopathological type of bronchogenic carcinoma among these females.
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Background: Life in a typical Indian household revolves around the cooking area, and Indian women spend much of their time there. Cooking stoves in most households are nothing more than a pit, a chulha (a U-shaped construction made from mud), or three pieces of brick. Cooking under these conditions entails high levels of exposure to cooking smoke. Aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of Chronic Exposure to Biomass Fuel Smoke on Pulmonary Function Test Parameters. Methods: 60 non-smoking women without any history of any major chronic illness in the past were selected for this study. The study group comprised of 30 rural female subjects who were chronically exposed to biomass fuel smoke combustion and 30 age matched urban female subjects exposed chronically to clean fuel combustion (Liquified Petroleum Gas–LPG) in Haryana (India). All the subjects were evaluated for pulmonary function tests by RMS Medspiror. Results: Biomass exposure index came out to be 85.68±3.69 for women cooking on biomass and LPG index was 64.17±6.97 for women cooking on LPG. This implies significant chronic exposure of women to biomass fuel smoke. The lung function parameters were significantly lesser in biomass exposed rural women [FEV1 (p<0.01), FVC (p<0.01), FEF25-75 (p<0.01), FEV1/FVC ratio (p<0.01), PEFR (p<0.01), MVV (p<0.01)] than the LPG exposed urban women. The evaluation of PFT suggested obstructive type of pulmonary disease. Conclusion: The derangement in pulmonary function parameters in women exposed to biomass smoke pollutants could be due to chronic significant exposure as suggested by high Biomass exposure Index. Inadequate ventilation in cooking area without chimney/vent also contributed to pulmonary function derangement and COPD.
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Background: Nonsmoker COPD in people is a continued point of concern. Recent standards prescribe that spirometry should be population specific, recent origin and methodically derived (prescribed by GOLD) with influencing factors specified – which this study aims to do. Methods: From a random sample of 4,500 adults, subjects were invited into study through a 16 point questionnaire. After inclusion/ exclusion criteria applied to 3,733 total responders, 244 rural and 240 urban healthy non-smoker females were enrolled. Spirometry with reproducibility testing before and after bronchodilator (salbutamol) was done as per GOLD prescription. As normality of distribution was disproved, non-parametric methods were used in statistics. Results: Mean FEV1 and FVC were 2.25 and 2.69 liters respectively in rural females, while it was 2.06 and 2.44 liters in urban females. Post-bronchodilator (after 0.3 mg salbutamol) values in rural females were 2.32 and 2.70 liters respectively while the same were 2.13 and 2.45 liters in urban cases. Conclusion: PFT of rural females resulted better on FEV1 and FVC, pre as well as post-bronchodilator. Possibly biomass fuel exposure in the rural females might not be causing a generalized decrease in PFT parameters or urban chemical pollution which might have more than counterbalanced in urban side.
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Routine exposure to domestic cooking fuels is an important source of indoor air pollution causing deterioration of lung function. We conducted a community based cross-sectional study in 760 non-smoking rural women involved in household cooking with four types of cooking fuels i.e. Biomass, Kerosene stove, Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) and Mixed (combination of two and more cooking fuels). Peak Expiratory Flow Rate (PEFR) less than 80% of the predicted was considered as abnormal PEFR. The overall prevalence of abnormal PEFR was found to be 29.1% with greater predominance among biomass fuel users (43.3%) with high risk ratio (1.86) as compared to kerosene (0.63), LPG (0.75) and mixed (0.66) fuel users. However the pair wise comparison of different groups of cooking fuels by Marascuilo procedure reported significant differences within different groups except kerosene - mixed group. The study also demonstrated a negative correlation between observed PEFR and exposure indices in different cooking fuels (r=–0.51). Our results indicate that prolonged exposure to cooking fuels particularly biomass fuels as a source of cooking adversely affects PEFR in nonsmoking rural women.
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Background & objectives: Exposure to air pollution due to combustion of biomass fuels remains one of the significant risk factors for chronic respiratory diseases such as chronic bronchitis. There is a need to identify the minimum threshold level of biomass index that is significantly associated with chronic bronchitis. This study was undertaken to identify a threshold for biomass exposure index in a rural women population in Mysore district, south India. Methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted in a representative population of Mysore and Nanjangud taluks. Eight villages each from Mysore and Nanjangud were randomly selected based on the list of villages from census 2001. A house-to-house survey was carried out by trained field workers using the Burden of Obstructive Diseases questionnaire, which evaluated the biomass smoke exposure and chronic bronchitis. All the women aged above 30 yr were included in the study. Results: A total of 2011 women from Mysore and 1942 women from Nanjangud participated in the study. All women were non-smoking and used biomass fuels as the primary fuel for cooking. A threshold of biomass fuel exposure of 60 was identified on multivariate analysis in Mysore district after adjusting for age, passive smoking and working in a occupational exposure to dust, as the minimum required for a significant association with chronic bronchitis. One in every 20 women in Mysore district exposed to biomass fuel exposure index of 110 or more developed chronic bronchitis. Interpretation & conclusions: The minimum threshold of biomass exposure index of 60 is necessary to have a significant risk of developing chronic bronchitis in women. The number needed to harm to develop chronic bronchitis reduces with increasing biomass exposure index and women residing in rural Nanjangud have a higher risk for developing chronic bronchitis as compared to women in Mysore.
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<p><b>OBJECTIVES</b>We investigated whether exposure to biomass fuel is a potential risk factor for chronic bronchitis and asthma among females in rural area in Van (east Turkey).</p><p><b>METHODS</b>The effect of indoor pollution producing various respiratory symptoms was studied in 177 females. Of these, 90 were those who used biomass fuel and 87 were nonusers of biomass fuel. A part of the European Community Respiratory Health Survey quastionnaire and British Medical Research Council questionnaire were used.</p><p><b>RESULTS</b>Asthma related symptoms (AS) (wheezing, and combination of wheezing without a cold and wheezing with breathlessness) were reported in 63.3% of those who used biomass fuel, and in 12.9% of nonusers (p<0.0001). The use of asthma medication was reported as 3.3% of biomass fuel users, and in 2.7% of nonuser (p>0.05). Long term cough and/or morning cough together with sputum (chronic bronchitis symptoms (BS) was reported as 58.9% in the user group, and 29.4% in the nonuser group (p<0.0001). Significant differences in AS and BS were found between biomass fuel user and nonuser groups in the rural area.</p><p><b>CONCLUSIONS</b>The results of this study showed a significant association between symptoms of chronic bronchitis-asthma and biomass fuel usage in females living in a rural area.</p>