Marine planktonic and benthic organisms: an ocean of diversity in the collections of the State of São Paulo / Organismos planctônicos e bentônicos marinhos: um oceano de diversidade nas coleções do Estado de São Paulo

Abstract Brazil is characterized as a megadiverse country, and one of the factors that guarantees the knowledge and preservation of this biodiversity is an improvement in the biological collections. They represent a country's biological, scientific, cultural, and genetic heritage and their preservation depends on a joint effort of researchers, institutions, and public authorities. Marine biological collections of invertebrates and algae of the state of São Paulo represent a high percentage of the national collections, with five biological collections deposited in state institutions. Currently, these collections safeguard the vast majority of the state's marine collection and make up one of the largest in the country. Therefore, the objective of this research is to present information on marine biological collections in the state of São Paulo, their current status, funding, and future perspectives, creating communication opportunities and considering the factors that impact their development. Support from the São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) surpasses state limits, since many studies address broader areas and/or establish diverse partnerships with other institutions from outside São Paulo. This is reflected in the taxonomic and geographic scope of the biological collections in the state, since these host specimens/species from different regions of the country, or even from other countries. However, it is worth mentioning that it is not enough to invest in expeditions to enrich the collections without valuing the training of qualified personnel, both for the collections maintenance and for their taxonomic refinement.

Resumo O Brasil é caracterizado como um país megadiverso e uma das prioridades no conhecimento e conservação dessa biodiversidade é seguramente a melhoria das coleções biológicas. Estas representam patrimônio biológico, científico, cultural e genético de um país, e sua preservação depende de um esforço coletivo de pesquisadores, instituições e do poder público. Com relação às coleções biológicas marinhas de invertebrados e algas, o estado de São Paulo representa uma alta porcentagem do acervo nacional, com cinco principais coleções depositadas em instituições estaduais. Atualmente estas coleções salvaguardam a grande maioria do acervo marinho estadual e compõem um dos maiores do país. Assim sendo, o objetivo desta pesquisa é o de apresentar informações sobre as coleções biológicas marinhas do estado de São Paulo, estado atual, financiamentos e perspectivas futuras, criando oportunidades de comunicação e considerando os fatores que impactam o desenvolvimento das mesmas. O apoio financeiro da Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) às instituições paulistas extravasa os limites do estado, visto que muitas pesquisas abordam áreas mais abrangentes e/ou estabelecem parcerias diversas com outras instituições não paulistas. Isso se reflete inclusive na abrangência taxonômica e geográfica das coleções biológicas do Estado, uma vez que estas mantêm espécimes/espécies de diferentes regiões do país, ou mesmo de outros países. No entanto, vale ressaltar que não basta investir em expedições de coleta para enriquecimento das coleções sem valorizar a formação de pessoal qualificado, tanto para a curadoria dos acervos quanto para o refinamento taxonômico.

Prospects for the ex situ liver machine perfusion in Brazil / Perspectivas para a máquina de perfusão hepática ex situ no Brasil

ABSTRACT Brazil, like most countries in the world, experiences the expansion of extended criteria donors, mainly due to the aging of the population and the obesity epidemic. Concerns regarding the quality of these organs along with the vast territorial areas of the country compromise the utilization rate of livers from donors and aggravate the discrepancy between the number of liver transplants performed and the needed. Ex situ liver machine perfusion offers superior preservation for livers from extended criteria donors, limiting cold ischaemia time and offering the possibility of evaluation of their function before transplantation as well as the reconditioning of marginal organs. Objections such as the financial cost, difficulty in transporting the device between hospitals, and demand of trained professionals in the handling of the device must be pondered with the possibility of increasing the number of transplants and the utilisation rate of donor organs. The optimal use of this resource, through the careful selection of donors and the appropriate technical and scientific knowledge, can ensure an effective and successful implementation of this technology.

RESUMO O Brasil, como a grande parte dos países no mundo, convive com a expansão de doadores de órgãos de critério estendido, principalmente devido ao envelhecimento da população e à epidemia de obesidade. Dúvidas em relação à qualidade desses órgãos juntamente com as longas extensões territoriais do país comprometem a taxa de utilização de fígados de doadores e agravam a discrepância entre o número de transplantes hepáticos realizados e o necessário. A máquina de perfusão hepática oxigenada ex situ oferece preservação superior para fígados de doadores de critério estendido, limitando o tempo de isquemia fria e oferecendo a possibilidade de avaliação da função antes do transplante bem como o recondicionamento de órgãos de qualidade limítrofe. Objeções como o custo financeiro, dificuldade de transporte do dispositivo entre hospitais e a demanda de profissionais treinados para o manuseio devem ser apreciadas diante da possibilidade do aumento do número de transplantes e a maior taxa de utilização de órgãos de doadores. A otimização na utilização desse recurso, por meio da seleção cuidadosa de doadores, e o conhecimento técnico-científico adequado podem garantir a implementação eficaz e bem sucedida dessa tecnologia.

Captive Breeding of Threatened Mammals Native to Southeast Asia – A Review on their Ex-situ Management, Implication and Reintroduction Guidelines

Heavy deforestation and land use conversion in Southeast Asia caused most of the mammals to face the threat of extinction due to limited availability of suitable habitats, which jeopardizes their survival throughout the region. As the demand for certain body parts of threatened mammals increases, illegal poaching activities increase, and consequently their population continuously decreases. Protecting sustainable population numbers or supporting efforts to multiply the population of threatened mammals in their own natural habitats is very challenging, almost impossible until the threats in the wild are removed. Therefore, ex-situ conservation through captive breeding is another reliable method which already been practiced for years across the world. Nevertheless, transferring and raising these mammals in breeding centers requires proper guidelines to maintain their welfare and genetic variability. In this paper, we discussed threatened mammals native to Southeast Asian countries that are currently under captive breeding programs. A multi-disciplinary overview, including: group size and social structure; health, stress and mortality studies and; enclosure design and environmental enrichment, are key components of the best management and husbandry practices. The mammalian alleles may experience evolutionary change if the populations of endangered mammals are retained in captivity after few generations, and that could lead to genetic problems. Therefore, a proper gene ‘flow’ is crucial to maintain genetic variation within and between populations. Finally, an important tool for species conservation is reintroduction of well-managed captive breeding populations into the wild. A complete health screening, selection of sites and pre-release training prior to reintroduction are crucial and need to be addressed for these mammalian populations.

Germination and seed conservation of a pioneer species, Tecoma stans (Bignoniaceae), from tropical dry forest of Colombia / Germinación y conservación de semillas de la especie pionera, Tecoma stans (Bignoniaceae), del bosque seco tropical de Colombia

Abstract Seed germination and seed longevity under different environmental conditions are fundamental to understand the ecological dynamics of a species, since they are decisive for its success within the ecosystem. Taking this into account, seed germination and seed storage behavior of a pioneer species of tropical dry forest (Tecoma stans) were studied in the laboratory, to establish the effect of different environmental conditions on a local tree population. Two seed lots collected in July 2011, from Cali (Colombia), were evaluated under three alternating temperatures (20/30, 20/25, 25/30 ºC; 16/8 h) and four light qualities (12-hour white light photoperiod, darkness, and 15 minutes of red light -R and far red light -FR). Final germination was recorded for all treatments; for white light treatment the daily germination was recorded to calculate mean germination rate, mean germination time, and two synchronization indices. To assess the effect of light quality on physiological variables, a destructive germination test was carried out. For this test, another seed lot was evaluated under the same light conditions using an alternating temperature of 20/30 °C - 16/8 h, recording germination during six days for every treatment. In addition, seeds were stored at two different moisture contents (7.7, 4.1 %) and three storage temperatures (20, 5, -20 ºC), during two time periods (one and three months); a seed germination test was conducted for each treatment. Four replicates of 35 seeds per treatment were used for all experiments. Germination was high (GP > 90 %) with all alternating temperatures under white light, whereas under R, FR, and darkness germination was evenly successful at low temperatures, but at higher temperature, half of the seeds entered into secondary dormancy (GP= 45-65 %). However, mean germination rate and synchronization under R and FR decreased significantly in comparison to white light treatment and, consequently, mean germination time increased. Seed storage behavior of this species is orthodox due to the high germination (GP > 90 %) obtained under all treatments. In conclusion, T. stans seeds have a negative germination response at high incubation temperatures in the absence of white light, entering into a secondary dormancy. In contrast, an environment with a lower temperature and without white light delays the germination, but at the end seeds are able to reach the same germination values. This seed dependence on incident light in limiting conditions suggests a physiological mechanism on the seed tissues of this species, probably mediated by phytochromes. Finally, the orthodox seed storage behavior of T. stans is a reason to include this species in ex situ seed conservation programs for restoration and recovery of the tropical dry forest; however, long-term studies should be conducted in order to evaluate the maintenance of this characteristic throughout longer periods of time. Rev. Biol. Trop. 66(2): 918936. Epub 2018 June 01.

Resumen La germinación y la longevidad de las semillas de una especie bajo diferentes condiciones ambientales son fundamentales para las dinámicas ecológicas de una especie, debido a que son decisivas en el éxito de la misma en un ecosistema. Teniendo en cuenta esto, se estudió la germinación y el comportamiento en el almacenamiento de las semillas de una especie pionera de bosque seco tropical (Tecoma stans) a nivel de laboratorio, para establecer el efecto de diferentes condiciones ambientales en una población local de árboles. Dos lotes de semillas recolectados en julio 2011, de Cali (Colombia), se evaluaron a tres temperaturas alternadas (20 / 30, 20 / 25, 25 / 30 °C; 16 / 8 h) y cuatro calidades de luz (fotoperiodo de 12 horas de luz blanca, oscuridad, y 15 minutos de luz roja -R y roja lejana -RL). Se registró la germinación final para todos los tratamientos; para el tratamiento de luz blanca se registró la germinación diaria para calcular la tasa media de germinación, el tiempo medio de germinación y dos índices de sincronización. Para evaluar el efecto de la calidad de luz sobre las variables fisiológicas, se realizó una prueba de germinación destructiva. Para esta prueba, otro lote de semillas fue puesto a las mismas condiciones de luz usando una temperatura alternada de 20 / 30 °C - 16 / 8 h, registrando la germinación durante seis días para cada tratamiento. Además, se almacenaron semillas a dos contenidos de humedad (7.7, 4.1 %) y a tres temperaturas de almacenamiento (20, 5, -20 °C), durante dos periodos de tiempo (uno y tres meses); se realizó una prueba de germinación a cada tratamiento. Cuatro repeticiones de 35 semillas por cada tratamiento se usaron en cada experimento. La germinación fue alta (PG > 90 %) en todas las temperaturas alternadas con luz blanca, mientras que en los tratamientos de luz R, RL y en oscuridad, la germinación fue igualmente exitosa a bajas temperaturas, pero a temperaturas más altas la mitad de las semillas entraron en latencia secundaria (PG= 45-65 %). Sin embargo, la tasa media de germinación y la sincronización en R y RL disminuyeron significativamente en comparación con el tratamiento de luz blanca y consecuentemente el tiempo medio de germinación aumentó. El comportamiento de las semillas de T. stans en el almacenamiento es ortodoxo debido a la alta germinación obtenida (PG > 90 %) en todos los tratamientos. En conclusión, las semillas de T. stans tienen una respuesta germinativa negativa a temperaturas de incubación alta en ausencia de luz blanca, donde entran a latencia secundaria. En contraste, un ambiente con baja temperatura y sin luz blanca retrasa la germinación, pero al final las semillas son capaces de alcanzar los mismos valores de germinación. Esta dependencia de las semillas a la luz incidente en condiciones limitantes sugiere la presencia de un mecanismo fisiológico en los tejidos de esta especie, probablemente mediado por fitocromos. Finalmente, el comportamiento ortodoxo de las semillas de T. stans en el almacenamiento abre la posibilidad de incluirla en programas de conservación ex situ para la restauración y recuperación del bosque seco tropical; no obstante, se deben llevarse a cabo pruebas más largas para evaluar el mantenimiento de esta característica por periodos de tiempo más largos.

Species diversity of ex-situ cultivated Chinese medicinal plants / 中国中药杂志

Ex-situ conservation is an important means to protect biological genetic resources. Resource protection has received more and more attention with the continuous improvement of the comprehensive utilization of traditional Chinese medicine resources. In this paper, the research and compilation of the species list of ex-situ cultivated medicinal plants in 12 Chinese Academy of Sciences botanic gardens and 19 specialized medicinal botanic gardens in China were carried out. Based on the Species 2000(2017) and other classification databases, species diversity of medicinal plants ex-situ cultivated in these botanical gardens were analyzed. The study found that there were 16 351 higher plant species in our country, belonging to 276 families and 1 936 genera. Of these, 6 949 specieswere medicinal plants, accounting for 50.4% of the total medicinal plants. There were 1 280 medicinal plants were in threatened status, accounting for 19.6% of all threatened species in the Chinese Biodiversity Red List, with ex-situ cultivated proportion of 59.5%. And 3 988 medicinal plants were Chinese endemic species, accounting for 22.5% of all Chinese endemic species, with ex-situ cultivated proportion of 53.3%. This article has reference significance for the management and protection of medicinal plant resources.

Evaluation methods and empirical study on priority species for ex situ conservation of medicinal plants / 中草药

With the prevalence of natural medicine and natural health products, the problem of resource exhaustion of medicinal plants have become increasingly serious. The protection of medicinal plants in China is increasingly valued, but there are still some shortcomings in the current assessment methods of medicinal plant protection. Based on the summary of evaluation methods of threatened level and priority protection of plants, this paper improved the existing methods according to the characteristics of ex situ conservation data of medicinal plants, and performed comparison study on ten hierarchical selected medicinal plants. The results showed that there was a difference between new method and the original method, and this method could further improve the index sensitivity, ease of data acquisition, and batch evaluation, which can better reflect the priority of species protection. The method can be used for assessing ex situ conservation of medicinal plants and has reference meaning for the economic research and management of Chinese materia medica resources.

Evaluation of the gelatin technique for the preservation of phytopathogenic fungi / Avaliação da técnica da gelatina para preservação de fungos fitopatogênicos

The preservation methods for fungi have great importance in ex situ collections, representing important biological heritage, useful for mycologists and plant pathologists in several scientific works. However, there is a lack of studies for a suiTable and efficient preservation method for the different groups of fungi. Although, the most appropriate is the one that maintain, even after long periods, the original characteristics of culture: viability, sporulation and pathogenicity, excluding mutations and undesirable contamination. The choice will depend of the laboratory infrastructure, microorganism, objectives, preferences and knowledge of the researcher. We conducted this study inside the Laboratory of Mycology and Plant Protection (LAMIP) in UFU (Universidade Federal de Uberlândia), localized in Uberlândia (MG), Brazil. The objective was to evaluate the gelatin preservation method (17 cultures), never used before for phytopathogenic fungi. Other classical methods were concomitantly evaluated, such as sterile soil (68 cultures), resistant structures (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) in 4°C (10 strains) and mineral oil (31 cultures). We examined the time for maintaining the viability, sporulation and colonization in host tissues preserved in different dates. The gelatin method remained viability in 10 cultures; this method is suiTable for preservation of the genera and species: Colletotrichum spp., Septoria spp., Fusarium spp., F. moniliforme var. subglutinans, Macrophomina spp., Phomopsis spp. and Verticillium spp. The viability remained in 38 strains of sterile soil, three of mineral oil, and one strain of sclerotia reached a maximum preservation time in 4°C of four years.

Os métodos de preservação de fungos têm grande importância em coleções ex situ, representando importante patrimônio biológico, útil para micologistas e fitopatologista como suporte para vários trabalhos científicos. Não existe um método de preservação adequado e eficiente para os diferentes grupos de fungos, entretanto, o mais apropriado é o que mantém, mesmo após longos períodos, as características originais da cultura: viabilidade, esporulação e patogenicidade, excluindo mutações e contaminação indesejável. A escolha dependerá da infra-estrutura laboratorial, microorganismo, objetivos, preferências e conhecimentos do pesquisador. Este trabalho foi realizado no Laboratório de Micologia e Proteção Vegetal (LAMIP) da UFU (Universidade Federal de Uberlândia), localizado em Uberlândia (MG), Brasil. O objetivo foi avaliar o método de preservação da gelatina (17 culturas), nunca testado antes para fungos fitopatogêncios. Concomitantemente foram avaliados métodos clássicos, como solo estéril (68 culturas), escleródios (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) em 4 ° C (10 isolados) e óleo mineral (31 culturas). Avaliou-se a manutenção na viabilidade, esporulação e patogenicidade dos isolados. O método da gelatina manteve a viabilidade em 10 culturas, sendo adequado para a preservação dos gêneros e espécies: Colletotrichum spp., Septoria spp., Fusarium spp., F. moniliforme var. subglutinans, Macrophomina spp., Phomopsis spp. e Verticillium spp. A viabilidade foi mantida em 38 isolados em solo estéril, três isolados em óleo mineral e um apenas um isolado de escleródio atingiu um tempo máximo de preservação de quatro anos.

Characterization of bioactive compounds, antioxidant activity and minerals in landraces of pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata) cultivated in Southern Brazil

Abstract The objective of this work was to evaluate the genetic variability for the synthesis of bioactive compounds and minerals in pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata) landraces. Total phenolic compounds, carotenoids, antioxidant activity and minerals were evaluated in 10 accessions of Cucurbita moschata landraces from the Genebank of Embrapa Temperate Agriculture (Pelotas - RS, Brazil). Twenty plants of each accession were cultivated in the field during the spring/summer of 2013/2014. After harvesting of mature fruits, the seeds were discarded and opposite longitudinal portions of the pulp were manually prepared for analysis of the bioactive compounds. For the determination of minerals, pumpkin samples were frozen in plastic bags, and after freeze-dried and milled. All analysis were performed in triplicate. The data obtained showed high genetic variability for the synthesis of phenolic compounds, carotenoids, antioxidant activity and minerals. The accessions C52, C81, C267 e C389 showed high levels of antioxidants and minerals, being recommended for use in pumpkin breeding programs. The accessions C52 and C389 are promising, especially because they present the highest levels of total carotenoids.

Current status and prospects of traditional Chinese medicine resource ex-situ conservation / 中国中药杂志

Protection of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) resources is the foundation of sustainable development of TCM industry, which includes the in-situ and ex-situ conservation. The development of TCM resource ex-situ conservation was reviewed, and hotpots in the conservation and its development practices were analyzed. Therefore national TCM resource ex-situ conservation systems were proposed, including the establishment of TCM resources introduction gardens, TCM resource in vitro conservation library and TCM resource bio-information sharing platform, rational distribution of TCM resources ex-situ conservation agencies, along with the advancement of TCM varieties breeding, and the perfection of Chinese herbal medicines seed and seedlings market, which are of significant importance on the guidance of TCM resource ex-situ conservation development.

Micoteca del Instituto Nacional de Higiene “Rafael Rangel”: 60 años preservando la biodiversidad fúngica de interés médico / Fungal collection of the National Institute of Hygiene “Rafael Rangel”: 60 years preserving fungal biodiversity of medical interest in Venezuela

La Micoteca del Instituto Nacional de Higiene “Rafael Rangel” (INHRR) fue creada en el año 1955 y es la colección de hongos microscópicos autóctonos más grande y representativa del país. Cuenta con 2.500 cepas pertenecientes a 77 géneros y 165 especies de hongos y actinomicetos, de importancia médica, epidemiológica, industrial e histórica, preservados por duplicado bajo los métodos de agua por Castellani y aceite mineral. La colección tiene presencia a nivel internacional a través del catálogo y la página web del Centro Venezolano de Colecciones de Microorganismos (CVCM), que a su vez está afiliada a la Federación Mundial de Colecciones de Cultivos (WFCC). Además, a través de su membresía a la Federación Latinoamericana de Colecciones de Cultivos (FELACC), sus datos están disponibles en la página web de la Asociación Argentina de Microbiología (AAM). La conservación de hongos microscópicos es fundamental, debido a su importancia en el funcionamiento de los ecosistemas y a su impacto en la vida del hombre. Esta Micoteca garantiza la preservación ex situ de la biodiversidad fúngica. Sus características la consolidan como una unidad cónsona con las exigencias de los ámbitos científico, tecnológico y docente, para el desarrollo de investigaciones científicas, particularmente en el área de medicina.

The fungal collection (Mycothec) of the National Institute of Hygiene “Rafael Rangel” (INHRR) was created in 1,955 and is the largest and more representative collection of the country’s indigenous microscopic fungi. It has 2,500 strains belonging to 77 genera and 165 species of fungi and actinomycetes retaining medical, epidemiological, industrial and historical importance, preserved by duplicate under water by Castellani and mineral oil methods. The collection has international presence through the catalog and the website of the Venezuelan Center of Microorganism Collections (CVCM), which in turn belongs to the World Federation of Culture Collections (WFCC). In addition, through its membership to the Latin American Federation of Culture Collections (FELACC) the data are accessible on the website of the Argentinian Association of Microbiology (AAM). The conservation of microscopic fungi is essential, due to its importance in the ecosystems functioning and their impact on human life. This Mycothec guarantee the ex situ conservation of fungal biodiversity. Its characteristics consolidate it as a consonant unit with the requirements of scientific, technological, and educational areas for the development of scientific research, particularly in the ​​medicine area.

Encapsulamento, crioproteção e desidratação na capacidade regenerativa de ápices caulinares de Genipa americana / Encapsulation, dehydration and cryoprotection in regenerative capacity of shoot apices of Genipa americana

Genipa americana (jenipapeiro) é uma essência florestal pertencente à família Rubiaceae, que apresenta importância econômica e ambiental, sendo valorizada para produção de alimentos, na recuperação de áreas degradadas, na composição em áreas de preservação permanentes e em sistemas agroflorestais. Objetivou-se avaliar o efeito de diferentes tempos de desidratação em câmara de fluxo laminar e tempos de imersão em solução crioprotetora (MS+0,5M de sacarose) na capacidade regenerativa de ápices caulinares da espécie para estabelecimento de futuros protocolos de criopreservação. Os ápices caulinares foram obtidos de plântulas, acesso Oiteiros, germinadas e cultivadas in vitro. Os explantes foram submetidos ao encapsulamento e a diferentes tempos de imersão em solução crioprotetora e tempos de desidratação em câmara de fluxo laminar. A crioproteção e a desidratação não alteram a viabilidade dos ápices caulinares de jenipapeiro encapsulados ou não encapsulados. A imersão por 24 horas em solução crioprotetora e a desidratação em câmara de fluxo laminar por 2 horas apresentam potencial para uso em futuros trabalhos de criopreservação por encapsulamento-desidratação.

Genipa americana (genipap) is a forest species belonging to the Rubiaceae family that has economic and environmental importance, being valued for food production, recuperation of degraded areas, in the composition in areas of permanent preservation and agroforestry. The objective of this research was to evaluate the effect of different times of dehydration in laminar flow cab and immersion time in cryoprotecting solution (MS+0.5M sucrose) on the regenerative capacity of shoot apices for establishing future cryopreservation protocols. The shoot apices were obtained from seedlings, of Oiteiros accession, germinated and cultured in vitro. Explants were subjected to encapsulation and different exposure times in cryoprotecting solution and dehydration in a laminar flow cab. The cryoprotection and dehydration does not modify the viability of the shoot apices of genipap encapsulated or unencapsulated. Immersion for 24 hours in cryoprotecting solution and the dehydration in a laminar flow cab by 2 hours have potential for use in future studies of cryopreservation by encapsulation-dehydration.

Parasitos de aves e mamíferos silvestres em cativeiro no estado de Pernambuco / Parasites of birds and mammals in captivity in Pernambuco state, Brazil

Os animais silvestres são hospedeiros de uma grande variedade de parasitos que podem interferir em sua conservação ex situ. O objetivo deste estudo foi identificar os parasitos gastrointestinais (PGI) e ectoparasitos dos animais do Centro de Triagem de Animais Silvestres (CETAS) do Instituto Brasileiro de Meio Ambiente e Recursos Naturais Renováveis (IBAMA) de Recife, Pernambuco, além de determinar os aspectos do manejo em cativeiro que possam estar relacionados com os parasitos identificados. Foram coletados ectoparasitos e amostras fecais de 223 aves e mamíferos, as quais foram processadas pelos métodos: microscopia direta, flutuação e sedimentação. Helmintos e/ou protozoários foram detectados em 91 (40,8%) amostras fecais, sendo 64 (70,3%) de aves e 27 (29,7%) de mamíferos. Ovos de Capillaria sp., Ascaridida, Spirurida e oocistos de Eimeria sp. foram detectados nas amostras fecais das aves, enquanto ovos de Trichuris trichiura, Strongyloides sp., Toxocara canis, Ancylostoma sp., Strongylida e oocistos de Coccídios foram encontrados nas amostras fecais de mamíferos. Os ectoparasitos identificados em aves foram Colpocephalum turbinatum, Kurodaia (Kurodaia) fulvofasciata, Halipeurus sp., Naubates sp., Saemundssonia sp., Austromenopon sp., Paragoniocotes sp., Brueelia sp., Myrsidea sp. and Pseudolynchia sp., enquanto em mamíferos os ectoparasitos identificados foram Rhipicephalus sanguineus, Amblyomma varium, A. calcaratum, A. nodosum, Ornithodoros talaje e Ctenocephalides felis felis. A. calcaratum e O. talaje são registrados pela primeira vez em Pernambuco e T. tetradactyla é apresentado como novo hospedeiro de O. talaje. Nenhum dos animais estudados apresentou sinais clínicos em decorrência da infecção/infestação parasitária. Parasitos com potencial zoonótico como T. trichiura, Strongyloides sp., T. canis e Ancylostoma sp. foram identificados em primatas não humanos e carnívoros. Precárias condições estruturais e sanitárias do CETAS-PE estão...

Wild animals are host to a variety of parasites that may interfere in their ex situ conservation. The objective of this study was to identify gastrointestinal parasites (GP) and ectoparasites of animals of Centro de Triagem de Animais Silvestres (CETAS) of Instituto Brasileiro de Meio Ambiente e Recursos Renováveis (IBAMA) in Recife/Pernambuco, Brazil, and to determine the aspects of captivity management that may be related to the parasites identified. We collected ectoparasites and fecal samples from 223 birds and mammals, which were processed by direct smear, flotation and sedimentation methods. Overall, helminthes and/or protozoa were detected in 91 (40.8%) fecal samples of 64 (70.3%) birds and 27 (29.7%) mammals. Capillaria sp., Ascaridida and Spirurida eggs and Eimeria sp. oocysts were found in fecal samples of birds, while eggs of Trichuris trichiura, Strongyloides sp., Toxocara canis, Ancylostoma sp., Strongylida and Coccidia oocysts were detected in fecal samples of mammals. Ectoparasites identified in birds were Colpocephalum turbinatum, Kurodaia (Kurodaia) fulvofasciata, Halipeurus sp., Naubates sp., Saemundssonia sp., Austromenopon sp., Paragoniocotes sp., Brueelia sp., Myrsidea sp. and Pseudolynchia sp. In mammals, the ectoparasites identified were Rhipicephalus sanguineus, Amblyomma varium, A. calcaratum, A. nodosum, Ornithodoros talaje and Ctenocephalides felis felis. A. calcaratum e O. talaje are presented for the first time in Pernambuco state and T. tetradactyla is reported as a new host of O. talaje. No animal presented clinical signs due to parasitic infection/infestation. Zoonotic parasites like T. trichiura, Strongyloides sp., T. canis and Ancylostoma sp. were identified in non-human primates and carnivores. Poor structural and sanitary conditions of CETAS-PE are related to the parasites identified in this study and should be taken into account for the adoption of appropriate control measures...

Rapid Veno-venous bypass by magnetic anastomosis technique in ex situ liver resection animal model / 中华肝胆外科杂志

Objective To invent a set of novel veno-venous bypass (VVB) device based on magnetic anastomosis technique which can be used in ex situ liver resection, and verify its clinical value and performance in animal models.Methods Each VVB device was constructed using three magnetic rings and an inverted Y-shaped tube with magnetic rings on each end.The magnetic ring was made of NdFeB with electrode cutting, and the tube was made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and preconditioned with heparin coating on the surface of the lumen.Ten dogs underwent the ex situ liver resection, and VVB was established via magnetic anastomosis technique with the novel VVB device during the operation.The time for completing VVB was recorded, and the hemodynamic indexes including the venous flow velocity, carotid pressure, central venous pressure and portal pressure was detected.The changes of intestinal lumen and kidney were also observed.Results It only took 6 ～ 10 minutes to establish VVB by the novel VVB device in the operation,and the hemodynamics stability was maintained smoothly during the anheptic phase.The shunt index of inferior vena cava and portal vein was 76.2％ and 75.5％, respectively.The congestion of intestinal canal and kidney were also alleviated during the anheptic phase.Conclusions It could reduce the time to establish VVB with magnetic anastomosis technique in ex situ liver resection.This study showed that utilizing the novel VVB device for intraabdominal VVB during the anheptic phase could be helpful to maintain the hemodynamics stability.

Análise florística comparativa da arborização urbana nos campi universitários do Brasil / A comparative floristic analysis of the urban arborization in university campi in Brazil

As instituições acadêmicas podem contribuir para uma adequada arborização urbana por meio do emprego de espécies apropriadas, embora em algumas universidades seja encontrado predomínio de espécies exóticas do Brasil. O objetivo deste trabalho foi realizar uma análise comparativa das espécies arbóreas e arbustivas utilizadas em campi universitários do Brasil para os quais há levantamentos disponíveis na literatura. Cada espécie teve sua origem (nativa ou exótica do Brasil) investigada. De posse dessas informações e dos dados de ocorrência das espécies, foram conduzidas análises exploratórias e confirmatórias. Apesar do uso predominante de espécies nativas (344 ­ 57,43% do total de espécies presentes na compilação), o número de exóticas (255 ­ 42,57% do total) foi elevado se considerarmos a diversidade ímpar da flora brasileira. O uso de espécies nativas e exóticas diferiu entre os levantamentos (χ2 =132,2, p < 0,0001); sete campi utilizaram significativamente (p ≤ 0,05) mais nativas do que exóticas e três campi, mais exóticas. Uma das espécies mais frequentes foi o pau-brasil (Caesalpinia echinata Lam.), classificada como "Em Perigo" pela Lista Vermelha de Espécies Ameaçadas. A similaridade florística entre os levantamentos foi em geral baixa, mas foi mais alta entre levantamentos situados geograficamente mais próximos (Mantel, r = -0,4459, p = 0,0020), sugerindo que campi sob diferentes contextos locais e regionais tendem a utilizar diferentes espécies. A maioria das espécies indicadoras foi nativa, mas as melhores indicadoras (Valor Indicador mais alto) foram exóticas. Recomenda-se que espécies nativas, particularmente as autóctones, sejam cada vez mais utilizadas nos espaços urbanos, principalmente onde se gera e difunde conhecimento, ou seja, nas universidades.

Academic institutions can contribute to an adequate urban forestry through the use of appropriate species, although in some of the university campi it is found predominance of exotic species. The aim of this paper was performing a comparative analysis of the tree and shrub species used in university campi in Brazil which surveys are available in the literature. Each species was investigated on this origin (Brazilian native or exotic). With this information and the data of species occurrence, it was conducted exploratory and confirmatory analyses. Although the predominant use of native species (344 ­ 57.43% of the total found in the compilation), the number of exotic ones (255 ­ 42.57% of the total) was high if we take in account the unique diversity of the Brazilian flora. The use of native and exotic species differed between the surveys (χ2 =132.2, p < 0.0001); seven campi used significantly (p < 0.05) more native than exotic species and three of them, more exotic. The most frequent species was "pau-brasil" (Caesalpinia echinata Lam.), classified as "In dangerous" by the Red List of Threatened Species. The floristic similarity between the surveys was low in general, but it was higher between surveys closer in space (Mantel, r = -0,4459, p = 0,0020), suggesting that campi under different local and regional contexts tend to use different species. The majority of indicator species (those with the highest Indicator Values) was native, but the best ones were exotic. It is recommended a more intensive employment of native species (especially the autochthone ones) in urban space, manly where knowledge is generated and diffused, i.e. in the universities.

Biología de la lapa (Cuniculus paca Brisson): una perspectiva para la zoocría / Biology of agouti (Cuniculus paca Brisson): a breeding perspective / Biologia da Paca (Cuniculus paca Brisson): uma perspectiva para sua criação em cativeiro

La lapa (Cuniculus paca) es un roedor de la región neotropical. Es de mediano tamaño, noctámbulo, solitario, territorial y sedentario. Es utilizada como fuente de alimento por la población indígena y rural. Su demanda es creciente, dado el exquisito sabor de su carne, incrementándose su caza para comercio ilegal. Lo anterior ha generado la extracción indiscriminada de su hábitat natural, causando una seria reducción de sus poblaciones. La zoocría es una alternativa para mitigar su depoblación. En Brasil, Ecuador, Panamá, México y Colombia se ha intentado su reproducción en cautiverio, con resultados interesantes. El objetivo del presente artículo de revisión es dar a conocer los comportamientos biológicos de lapa in situ y ex situ, para su manejo adecuado en cautiverio.

The agouti (Cuniculus paca) is a rodent of the Neotropics. It is medium-sized, night owl, solitary, territorial, and sedentary. Indigenous and rural populations use it is a food source. Illegal hunting and trade of agouti is increasing given the exquisite flavor of its meat. This has led to an indiscriminate extraction from their natural habitat, causing a serious reduction in its wild populations. Farm breeding is an alternative to mitigate its depopulation. Researchers in Brazil, Ecuador, Panama, Mexico, and Colombia have attempted to breed agouti in captivity, with interesting results. The aim of this review is to present the in situ and ex situ behavior of agouti for its proper handling in captivity.

A Paca (Cuniculus paca) é um roedor da região neotropical de tamanho médio, hábitos noturnos, solitário, territorial e sedentário. É utilizada como fonte de alimento pela população indígena e rural. Atualmente tem aumentado a demanda de carne de Paca por ser muito gostosa e palatável, o qual incrementou a caça predatória e o comercio ilegal, gerando uma seria diminuição progressiva de suas populações em seus habitats naturais. Uma alternativa para mitigar este problema é a criação zootécnica em cativeiro. Tem se realizado alguns ensaios para lograr sua reprodução com resultados interessantes no Brasil, Equador, Panamá, México e na Colômbia, mas seu objetivo tem sido principalmente a pesquisa ou a conservação. Embora, existem experiências em estes países que tem permitido conhecer parâmetros zootecnicos idôneos para sua criação comercial em cativeiro. O objetivo do presente artigo de revisão é dar a conhecer os comportamentos biológicos da Paca in situ e ex situ para seu manejo adequado e pertinente em cativeiro para fins comerciais.

In vitro micropropagation of rare and endangered moss Entosthodon hungaricus (Funariaceae) / Micropropagação in vitro do musgo raro Entosthodon hungaricus, ameaçado de extinção (Funariaceae)

The moss Entosthodon hungaricus (Boros) Loeske is an European endemic species typical of dry and saline soils extending from the Iberian Peninsula to Aral-Caspian steppes, similarly to some other xerothermic bryophytes. However, the distribution range is fragmented and localities are quite scattered and the species is considered as rare and vulnerable because of its ephemeral characteristics and specialized ecology. With the aim to develop an active protection plan for this species, the ex situ conservation requirements of E. hungaricus were developed. The axenic culture in in vitro conditions were established, and the optimal growth parameters were adjusted to achieve fully developed gametophytes ready to be reintroduced to its native range and other potentially native areas, where this species was once reported but has not been collected in recent times, suggesting its local extinction (i.e. some areas in Vojvodina, N. Serbia). Starting materials were derived from recent herbarium specimens and from fresh materials collected from Hungarian populations. Several means for sterilization of stating material and growing nutritive media were assayed in different regimes of light and temperature. Here we describe the conditions to achieve full plant development and for its micropropagation. Such materials are adequate for ex situ conservation purposes and for experimental introductions in native and potentially native areas. The first axenical culture of E. hungaricus was successfully established, and the first in vitro micropropagation of this rare and endangered species was achieved. Our study contributes to the conservation biology as well as for the potential use of this moss species in biotechnological research.

O musgo Entosthodon hungaricus (Boros) Loeske é uma espécie endêmica Européia típica de solos secos e salinos que se estendem da Península Ibérica até as estepes Aral-Cáspias, similar a outras briófitas de clima seco. Entretanto, a distribuição é bastante dispersa e fragmentada e a espécie é considerada muito rara e vulnerável devido às suas características efêmeras e ecologia especializada. Com o intuito de desenvolver um plano de proteção a essa espécie, foram elaborados os requisitos de preservação ex situ das E. hungaricus. As condições para a cultura axênica in vitro foram estabelecidas e os parâmetros ideais de crescimento foram atingidos para conseguir gametófitos completamente desenvolvidos, prontos para serem reintroduzidos em suas áreas nativas e em outras áreas potencialmente nativas, onde essa espécie já foi relatada. Porém, não houve coleta da mesma nos últimos anos, o que sugere uma extinção local (por exemplo, algumas áreas em Voivodina, Norte da Sérvia). Os materiais iniciais foram derivados de espécies recentes de herbários e de materiais frescos coletados de populações Húngaras. Várias formas de assepsia do material inicial e dos meios de crescimento nutritivo foram ensaiadas em diferentes regimes de luz e temperatura. No trabalho descrevemos as condições para obter desenvolvimento completo da planta e sua micropropagação. Os materiais são adequados para os fins de conservação ex situ e para as introduções experimentais em áreas nativas e/ou potencialmente nativas. O estudo contribui para a conservação biológica bem como para o potencial uso dessa espécie de musgo em pesquisas biotecnológicas.

Variabilidad genética de poblaciones en cautiverio de Crocodylus moreletii (Crocodylia: Crocodylidae) mediante el uso de marcadores microsatelitales / Genetic variability in captive populations of Crocodylus moreletii (Crocodylia: Crocodylidae) using microsatellites markers

Genetic variability in captive populations of Crocodylus moreletii (Crocodylia: Crocodylidae) using microsatellites markers. Crocodylus moreletii, an extinction threatened species, represents an emblem for tropical ecosystems in Mexico. Surprisingly, there is a lack of information about their genetic constitution, which should be evaluated for a proper management ex situ and for making decisions on the release of crocodiles into natural habitats. The aim of this study was to characterize and compare the genetic variability of four populations of C. moreletii (two wild versus two born ex situ). Through PCR were amplified seven microsatellite polymorphic loci, however a heterozygote deficit, diminished by the presence of null alleles, was found in the populations (average H O=0.02). The AMOVA indicated that the highest proportion of genetic variability is within populations, and a limited genetic differentiation among populations (average F ST=0.03), probably due to high inbreeding index (average F IS=0.97). When comparing the genetic variability between and within other crocodilian species, we found that in C. moreletii is well below those reported. We concluded that the limited genetic variability in ex situ born populations is probably due to a founder effect derived from the social structure of their progenitors, and by the bottleneck effect, inferred by the limited effective population size, that historically characterizes their natural distribution in wild populations.

Crocodylus moreletii representa un emblema para los ecosistemas tropicales de México pero actualmente está amenazada por extinción. Sorprendentemente, hay una falta de información de su constitución genética, que debe ser evaluada para un manejo apropiado ex situ y para toma de decisiones en la liberación de cocodrilos a su hábitat natural. El objetivo del estudio fue caracterizar y comparar la variabilidad genética de cuatro grupos poblacionales de C. moreletii (dos silvestres y dos nacidas ex situ). Mediante PCR se amplificaron siete loci de microsatélites polimórficos, sin embargo se encontró déficit de heterocigotos en las poblaciones (promedio H O=0.02) mermado por la presencia de alelos nulos. El AMOVA indicó que la mayor proporción de variabilidad genética se encuentra dentro de las poblaciones y una limitada diferenciación genética entre poblaciones (promedio F ST =0.03), probablemente debida al alto índice de endogamia (promedio F IS=0.97). Al comparar la variabilidad genética inter e intra especies de cocodrilianos, encontramos que en C. moreletii está muy por debajo de los reportados. Se concluye que la limitada variabilidad genética de las poblaciones nacidas ex situ probablemente se debe al efecto fundador derivado de la estructura social de sus progenitores, y de las poblaciones silvestres, por el efecto cuello de botella, inferido por el limitado tamaño efectivo de población que presentó históricamente en su distribución natural.

A method for seedling recovery in Jatropha curcas after cryogenic exposure of the seeds

Actually, the germplasm of Jatropha spp. is conserved as whole plants in field collections. Under this storage method, the genetic resources are exposed to disease, pest and natural hazards such as human error, drought and weather damage. Besides, field genebanks are costly to maintain and with important requirements of trained personnel. Thus, the development of efficient techniques to ensure its safe conservation and regeneration is therefore of paramount importance. In this work we describe a method for Jatropha curcas seeds cryoexposure and seedling recovery after thawed. In a first experiment, an efficient protocol for in vitro plant recovery was carried out using zygotic embryo or seeds with or without coat. In a second experiment, desiccated seeds with or without coat were exposed to liquid nitrogen and evaluated after cryoexposure. Germination percentages were variable among treatments, and seeds demonstrated tolerance to liquid nitrogen exposure under certain conditions. Seeds of J. curcas presented up to 99.6% germination after seed coat removal. Seeds with coat cultured in vitro did not germinate, and were 60% contaminated. The germination of the zygotic embryos was significantly higher in the ½ MS medium (93.1%) than in WPM medium (76.2%), but from zygotic embryo, abnormal seedlings reached up to 99%. Seeds with coat exposed to liquid nitrogen showed 60% germination in culture after coat removal with good plant growth, and seeds cryopreserved without coat presented 82% germination, but seedlings showed a reduced vigor and a significant increase in abnormal plants. Seeds cultured in vitro with coat did not germinate, independently of cryoexposure or not. This study reports the first successful in vitro seedling recovery methodology for Jatropha curcas seeds, after a cryopreservation treatment, and is recommended as an efficient procedure for in vitro plant recovery, when seeds are conserved in germplasm banks by low or cryotemperatures.

Actualmente, el germoplasma de las especies de Jatropha ssp. se conserva como plantas enteras en las colecciones de campo. Bajo este método de almacenamiento, los recursos genéticos están expuestos a enfermedades, plagas y desastres naturales tales como el error humano, la sequía y las inclemencias del tiempo. Además, los bancos de germoplasma de campo son costosos de mantener y requieren bastante personal capacitado. Por lo tanto, el desarrollo de técnicas eficientes para asegurar su conservación segura así como su regeneración, es de suma importancia. En este trabajo se describe un método de recuperación para semillas y plántulas crioexpuestas de Jatropha curcas después de descongeladas. En un primer experimento, se llevó a cabo un protocolo eficiente para la recuperación de plantas in vitro mediante el uso de embriones cigóticos o semillas con o sin testa. En un segundo experimento, las semillas disecadas, con o sin testa fueron expuestas a nitrógeno líquido y se evaluaron después de la crioexposición. Los porcentajes de germinación fueron variables entre los tratamientos, y las semillas demostraron tolerancia a la exposición del nitrógeno líquido bajo ciertas condiciones. Las semillas de J. curcas presentaron hasta un 99.6% de germinación después de la eliminación de la testa. Las semillas con la testa cultivadas in vitro no germinaron, y el 60% se contaminaron. La germinación de los embriones cigóticos fue significativamente alta en el medio ½ MS (93.1%) en comparación con el medio WPM (76.2%), pero desde los embriones zigóticos, las plántulas anormales alcanzaron más del 99%. Semillas con la testa inmersa en nitrógeno líquido mostraron un 60% de germinacion en cultivos despúes de la remoción de la testa con un buen crecimiento de la planta, y las semillas criopreservadas sin testa presentaron un 82% de germinación, pero las plántulas mostraron un reducido vigor y un incremento significativo de plantas anormales. Semillas con testa cultivadas in vitro no germinaron, independientemente de la criopreservación o no. Este estudio reporta el primer éxito in vitro de una metodología de recuperación de plántulas para semillas de Jatropha curcas, después de un tratamiento de criopreservación, que se recomienda como un procedimiento eficaz para la recuperación de plantas in vitro, cuando las semillas se conservan en bancos de germoplasma a bajas o crio-temperaturas.

Agentes osmóticos e temperatura na conservação in vitro de sempre-viva / Osmotic agents and temperature on in vitro conservation of sempre-viva

A conservação in vitro é uma estratégia de conservação ex situ que garante a manutenção da integridade genética e biológica das espécies. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o efeito de agentes osmóticos e temperatura na conservação in vitro de Syngonanthus mucugensis Giul. subsp. mucugensis. Os brotos foram inoculados em meio de cultura MS ½ contendo 7g L-1 de ágar e suplementado com 60g L-1 de sacarose, e com as concentrações de sacarose 15, 30 e 45g L-1 combinados com 0 e 15g L-1 de sorbitol ou manitol. As culturas foram mantidas em duas temperaturas (18 e 25°C). A porcentagem de sobrevivência das plantas foi avaliada mensalmente e ao final de 180 dias foram analisados o comprimento da parte aérea e da raiz, a porcentagem de folhas verdes, a porcentagem de explantes com brotos, o número de brotos por explante e o comprimento dos brotos. Os agentes osmóticos promoveram um decréscimo no crescimento das plantas, no entanto reduziram a sua viabilidade. Os resultados observados nos experimentos mantidos a 18°C foram significativamente superiores aos encontrados a 25°, para todas as variáveis analisadas. A conservação de S. mucugensis subsp. mucugensis pode ser feita à 18°C em meio de cultura MS ½ contendo 15g L-1 de sacarose, por até 180 dias, sem subcultivo.

The in vitro conservation is an ex situ conservation strategy that ensures the maintenance of genetic and biological integrity of species. The present study evaluated the effects of, osmotic agents and different temperature regimes on the in vitro conservation of Syngonanthus mucugensis Giul. subsp. mucugensis. The shoots were inoculated into half salt strength Murashige and Skoog culture medium (MS ½) containing 7g L-1 of agar. The culture medium was supplemented with 60gL-1 sucrose and with the sucrose concentrations 15, 30 and 45g L-1 combined with 0 and 15g L-1 of sorbytol or mannitol. Two different temperatures were used in these experiments (18 and 25°C). The percentage of plant survival was evaluated monthly and at 180 days were analyzed length of shoot and root, the percentage of green leaves, the percentage of explants with shoots and number of shoots per explants and shoot length. The addition of osmotic agents resulted in decreased growth of the plants and therefore reduced their viability. The averages observed in the experiments undertaken at 18°C were significantly superior to those observed at 25°C for all of the variables analyzed. S. mucugensis subsp. mucugensis can be cultured at 18°C in MS½ culture medium containing 15g L-1 of sucrose, for up to 180 days, without subculturing.

Public germplasm collections and revolutions in biotechnology.

State funding of anything to do with the ‘public good’ has been accepted as something natural in many cultures. However, in free enterprise countries that are at the forefront of modern science, publicly funded activities are widely regarded as legitimate only if they are essential and not addressed by the market place. For-profit companies understandably focus on activities where the relationship between cost and benefit are obvious and hence invest in activities with a well-defined cost–benefit relationship. Collections of living biological materials are an example of an activity where benefits are difficult to associate with cost and therefore have to continually struggle for financial support. Because of its intrinsically speculative nature, basic scientific research is often regarded as having a poorly defined cost–benefit relationship. For-profit entities conduct applied research whose results are likely to augment their coffers, or will sponsor such research via competitive grants. Basic research is more often funded via competitive grants by government agencies, sometimes by private philanthropic foundations, or directly conducted by the very largest private corporations. In most cases of published research, direct public funding provides facilities and training (mostly at universities), while research funds for specific projects are obtained by investigators via competitive grants. Most scientists accept, and adapt to, this situation much as we accept and adapt to the weather. Boundaries between ‘basic’ and ‘applied’ are not rigid or immutable and even the lexicon is fluid. Recently applied research has been re-cast as ‘translational’, bridging the span between basic research and development of products or processes. In agriculture and botany, the line between basic and applied was probably stronger a couple decades ago: ‘Funding for basic (versus applied) research in plant science is very limited and much of what is available comes through the National Science Foundation (NSF)’ (Dilcher 1991). Currently, however, ‘The line between furthering basic understanding of natural processes and the development of potential applications is hazy and overlapping, and the time from discovery to commercialization can be exceedingly short’ (Watson et al. 2003). What persists in this changing environment is the necessity for most scientists to obtain research funds via various competitive grants programs. A major exception to this state of affairs is the maintenance and preservation of large biological collections, which have relevance to both basic and applied research, especially to biotechnology. Government and non-profit entities (the latter usually receiving government assistance) have been critical for creating and maintaining these collections of living organisms, including performing the research necessary to characterize and preserve the germplasm itself. These ‘germbanks’ are, like bank accounts, savings for both anticipated and unexpected contingencies. In plant research, they provide potential sources of resistance to emerging pests and diseases, genes for drought hardiness or useful metabolic products, as well as other desirable traits. However, these traits are often not readily apparent, and often occur in a genetic background of less desirable properties. Microbial collections are similarly valuable in providing validated material for testing new plant varieties, new anti-microbial drugs, for developing drug targets, and often provide genetic material for development of new enzymes used in every aspect of modern life. Because the value of such biological material is often in its hidden potential, truly comprehensive collections are often maintained at public expense or receive governmental subsidies. While preservation of natural environments is an important factor in preserving biological diversity, it is complementary to and not redundant with ex situ biological repositories. The fiscal health (or lack thereof) of germplasm collections has been the subject of frequent review (e.g. Strauss 1998; McCluskey 2003; Babcock et al. 2007; Gowans 2009). In the US, ‘microbial collections are at risk … because the United States lacks a coordinated national system to protect, preserve and enhance these valuable resources’ (APS 2009). In spite of their sometimes insecure budgets, these large biological collections are supremely important. Biological materials from public germplasm collections have been decisive for three of the most significant innovations in modern biotechnology. These innovations are: (i) the commercial production of antibiotics and other drugs, pioneered by penicillin production; (ii) the Green Revolution, commencing with semi-dwarf wheat varieties and (iii) modern molecular genetics, made feasible by the polymerase chain reaction.