A study on influence of iron deficiency anaemia over HbA1c levels

Background: Haemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) is a glycated form of haemoglobin reflects average plasma glucose over the previous 8 to 12 weeks. HbA1c can be affected by multiple non-glycaemic parameters. Iron deficiency anaemia (IDA) is one among them which is the most common type of anaemia in India. However, reports on the effects of iron deficiency anaemia on HbA1c levels are inconsistent. Hence we conducted a study to find out the influence of iron deficiency anaemia over HbA1c levels. Methods: 120 patients confirmed to have iron deficiency anaemia were enrolled in this study. HbA1c levels were measured at baseline and 3 months after treatment, and these values were compared with those in the control population.Results: The mean baseline HbA1c level in anaemic patients (4.62%) was significantly lower than that in the control group (5.45%, P<0.001). A significant increase was observed in the patients HbA1c levels at 3 months after treatment (5.82%, P<0.001). There was a significant correlation observed between haemoglobin and HbA1c level (Coefficient of correlation=0.26, P<0.01) in the study group before correction.Conclusions: In contrast to the observations of previous studies, ours showed that HbA1c levels increased with treatment of iron deficiency anaemia. This could be attributable to nutritional deficiency, racial-ethnic variations and/or certain unknown variables. Further studies are warranted.

Value of haemoglobin A1c as the cut-off point for diabetes diagnosis based on the population in the department of endocrinology / 中国医师进修杂志

Objective@#To investigate the value of haemogobin A1c(HbA1c) for diagnosing various hyperglycemias in the Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University.@*Methods@#This study is based on the data randomly selected from patients without clinical intervention in the endocrinology department and admission office in the Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University from January 1st of 2010 to December 31th of 2012. In this study, 2 853 patients aged 16-85 year were selected, who performed OGTT and HbA1c on the same day. Their data of HbA1c and OGTT were collected. Selection criteria: the OGTT and HbA1c were performed simultaneously unless the patients had acidosis, and patients with past history of diabetes and oral hypoglycemic drugs or insulin treatment, or other basic combined diseases were included in this study. People in pregnancy were ruled out. Area under the receiver operating characteristics curve (ROC), sensitivity, and specificity were adopted to evaluate the diagnosis effect of HbA1c using FPG and OGTT as golden standard for diabetes and pre-diabetes.@*Results@#The area under the ROC were 0.902 (95% confidence interval 0.890-0.914) for HbA1c alone and 0.915 (0.906-0.925) for FPG alone. The HbA1c threshold of 6.5% showed the highest Youden index of 64.4% and significantly higher sensitivity 81.1% compared with FPG ≥ 7.0 mmol/L (69.8%, P < 0.01) in detecting diabetes. The optimal HbA1c thresholds for diagnosing pre-diabetes was 5.6% (the area under the ROC: 0.725; sensitivity: 74.1%; specificity: 60.3%).@*Conclusions@#These findings suggest that HbA1c 6.5% and 5.6% can be used as the diagnosing criterions for diabetes and pre-diabetes among the population who visit department of endocrinology.

Value of haemoglobin A1c as the cut-off point for diabetes diagnosis based on the population in the department of endocrinology / 中国医师进修杂志

investigate the value of haemogobin A1c(HbA1c) for diagnosing various hyperglycemias in the Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University. Methods This study is based on the data randomly selected from patients without clinical intervention in the endocrinology department and admission office in the Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University from January 1st of 2010 to December 31th of 2012. In this study, 2 853 patients aged 16-85 year were selected, who performed OGTT and HbA1c on the same day. Their data of HbA1c and OGTT were collected. Selection criteria: the OGTT and HbA1c were performed simultaneously unless the patients had acidosis, and patients with past history of diabetes and oral hypoglycemic drugs or insulin treatment, or other basic combined diseases were included in this study. People in pregnancy were ruled out. Area under the receiver operating characteristics curve (ROC), sensitivity, and specificity were adopted to evaluate the diagnosis effect of HbA1c using FPG and OGTT as golden standard for diabetes and pre-diabetes. Results The area under the ROC were 0.902 (95% confidence interval 0.890- 0.914) for HbA1c alone and 0.915 (0.906-0.925) for FPG alone. The HbA1c threshold of 6.5% showed the highest Youden index of 64.4% and significantly higher sensitivity 81.1% compared with FPG ≥ 7.0 mmol/L (69.8%, P<0.01) in detecting diabetes. The optimal HbA1c thresholds for diagnosing pre-diabetes was 5.6% (the area under the ROC: 0.725; sensitivity: 74.1% ; specificity: 60.3% ). Conclusions These findings suggest that HbA1c 6.5% and 5.6% can be used as the diagnosing criterions for diabetes and pre-diabetes among the population who visit department of endocrinology.

Prevalence of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus based on glucose tolerance test on weeks 24 to 28. Prospective cohort in Armenia, Colombia, 2015-2016 / Prevalencia de diabetes mellitus gestacional por curva de tolerancia a la glucosa en las semanas 24 a 28. Cohorte prospectiva en Armenia, Colombia, 2015-2016

ABSTRACT Objective: To determine the prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus that appears during the second or the third trimester of pregnancy using a glucose tolerance test, and to explore the relationship with pregnancy outcomes in pregnant women in Armenia. Materials and methods: Prospective cohort study in pregnant women coming to a Level I clinic in Armenia for prenatal care before 14 weeks of gestation who signed the informed consent. Pregnant women with hypertension or existing diabetes before pregnancy or with conditions that could alter HbA1c were excluded. Consecutive sampling: Blood sugar and HbA1c were measured on admission and the glucose tolerance test with 75 g was measured at 24-28 weeks; perinatal and maternal outcomes were measured at the time of delivery. A descriptive analysis is performed and the prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus is presented. Results: Of a total of 372 candidates to enter the study, there were two cases (0.5%) of pre-gestational diabetes mellitus. Of the 370 pregnant women who met the selection criteria, 43 (11.6%) had a miscarriage, and 36 (9.7%) were lost to follow-up before 24 weeks; of the remaining 291 women, 35 (12%) did not undergo the glucose tolerance test. The glucose tolerance test was performed in 256 pregnant women and it was abnormal in 12 cases, for a prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus of 4.7% (12/256). Conclusions: The prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus was 4.7% in the study population, although frequency may have been underestimated due to losses before 24 weeks. No adverse perinatal outcomes were found in this group of pregnant women.

RESUMEN Objetivo: determinar, por curva de tolerancia a la glucosa (CTG), la prevalencia de diabetes mellitus gestacional (DMG) que se inicia en el segundo o tercer trimestre del embarazo, y explorar la relación con resultados del embarazo en gestantes de Armenia. Materiales y métodos: estudio prospectivo en cohorte de gestantes que consultaron a un centro de atención de primer nivel en Armenia, para control prenatal antes de la semana 14 y firmaron el consentimiento informado. Se excluyeron gestantes con hipertensión o diabetes previa al embarazo, o condiciones que pudieran alterar la HbA1c. Se midieron glicemia y HbA1c al ingreso, y curva de tolerancia a la glucosa (CTG) con 75 g semanas 24-28, y resultados perinatales y maternos al parto. Se hace análisis descriptivo y se presenta la prevalencia de DMG. Resultados: de un total de 372 gestantes candidatas a ingresar al estudio se detectaron dos casos (0,5 %) de diabetes mellitus previa al embarazo. De las 370 que cumplieron los criterios de selección, un total de 43 (11,6 %) presentaron aborto, otras 36 (9,7 %) se retiraron antes de la semana 24; de las 291 restantes, 35 (12 %) no se realizaron la CTG, por lo que se tomó la CTG en 256 gestantes, de las cuales se encontró CTG anormal en 12 casos, para una prevalencia de DMG de 4,7 % (12/256). Conclusiones: la prevalencia de DMG fue del 4,7 % en la población estudiada, podría haber subestimación de la frecuencia por pérdidas antes de la semana 24. No se encontraron resultados perinatales adversos en este grupo de gestantes.

A Study of HbA1c, fasting and 2 hour plasma glucose levels in current smokers presenting at a tertiary care hospital in North India

Background: There is a concern that smokers are at increased risk of diabetes and this association has received surprisingly little attention. This study aims to study the relationship of smoking with three glycaemic variables (HbA1c, fasting and 2 hour post prandial plasma glucose levels) in current smokers and describe the potential impact of smoking in the context of screening for diabetes by using one of these glycaemic variables.Methods: 150 patients attending the OPD of Santosh Medical College were part of this Cross sectional population based study. One hundred were smokers and fifty non-smokers and non-diabetics. All participants were subjected to fasting plasma glucose level, 2 hour plasma glucose level and HbA1c testing.Results: Mean values of all three variables are substantially higher in smokers as compared to non-smokers. HbA1c levels show an increasing trend with increasing age among both groups. Mean plasma glucose levels show increasing values with increasing age but the trend is not uniform. Among females, only HbA1c levels whereas among males all three variables show a strong correlation with smoking. No correlation was observed between the number of cigarettes smoked daily or smoking index and the glycaemic variables. All variables show an increasing trend as the number of years of smoking increases.Conclusions: A higher prevalence of diabetes is seen in current smokers when we consider HbA1c levels indicating the beneficial effect of using HbA1c levels for identifying current smokers at risk of diabetes mellitus.

Retrospective analysis of external quality assessment results for hemoglobin measurement in Guangxi Province during 2012 to 2016 / 临床检验杂志

Objective To evaluate the detection competence of HbA2 and HbF in Guangxi medical laboratories.Methods The external quality assessment(EQA) of HbA2 and HbF was conducted twice a year and five samples was detected each time during 2012 to 2016.The laboratories participated in EQA completed the samples' detection and submitted the detection results at specified time according to the requirements of EQA.The distribution of each detection system,the qualification rate of each laboratory,the variation degrees of each detection system and each detection method,and the variations of results for different levels of quality control(QC) materials during 5 years were analyzed based on the returned results.Results The application of high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and capillary electrophoresis(CE) increased year by year and their usage rates in 2016 reached up to 46.1％ (82/178) and 18.0％ (32/178),respectively.The qualification rates of HbA2 and HbF increased from 51.5％ (34/66) and 60.6％ (40/66) in 2012 to 93.3％ (166/178) and 92.1％ (164/178) in 2016,respectively.The average coefficient of variation(CV) of each detection system decreased year by year.There were good CVs for the results of high,medium and low levels of HbA2 QC materials detected by the Bio-Rad Variant Ⅱ and Sebia CAPILLARYS 2 systems,and they were less than 6.0％.HPLC and CE could quantitatively detect the HbA2 and HbF levels,and their total detection competence was superior to that of agarose gel electrophoresis.Conclusion EQA can assess the abihty of one laboratory detecting HbA2 and HbF,and quantitatively analyze the levels of HbA2 and HbF,which may provide the quality assurance and data support for the screening and prevention of thalassemia.

Do statins adversely affect the HbA1c of diabetic patients?

This paper discusses the adverse effect of statins on the HbA1c levels of diabetic patients. Studies have shown that statins may slightly worsen the HbA1c level. The effects vary depending on the type of statins, the dosage and the duration of therapy. However, it has been confirmed that statin use has benefits that outweigh its harms. Therefore, a diabetic patient should be given advice on the need for appropriate lifestyle changes and the importance of continuing the statins.

Seasonal variation of haemoglobin A1c in a Portuguese adult population

Objective Haemoglobin A1c (Hb A1c) is routinely used for monitoring glycemic control in patients with diabetes. Hb A1c seasonal fluctuations can be directly related to different biological, geographical and cultural influences. Our purpose was to evaluate seasonal variation of Hb A1c in a hospital-based adult population over a period of 5 years.Materials and methods We analyzed retrospectively monthly Hb A1c mean values (DCCT, %) based on all the assays performed to adult patients at a tertiary care university Portuguese hospital between 2008-2012.Results We obtained 62,384 Hb A1c valid measurements, with a peak level found in January-February (7.1%), a trough in August-October (6.8%) and an average peak-to-trough amplitude value of 0.3%. This trend was observed in both genders and age subgroups evaluated.Conclusions There is a Hb A1c circannual seasonal pattern with peak levels occurring in winter months in this Portuguese population. This finding should be recognized in daily clinical practice to warrant better clinical and epidemiological interpretation of Hb A1c values. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2015;59(3):231-5.

Awareness of Glycosylated Haemoglobin (HbA1c) Among Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Patients in Hospital Putrajaya

The glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA1c) test is the most widely accepted laboratory test for evaluating long term glycaemic control. Patient’s understanding of HbA1c can lead to better glycaemic control. This study is aimed to determine the awareness and level of understanding of HbA1c among type 2 DM patients and its association with glycaemic control. A cross-sectional descriptive study among Type 2 DM patients undergoing routine follow up in an endocrine clinic of a tertiary centre in Malaysia. Patients were invited to answer a validated questionnaire which assessed their awareness and understanding of HbA1c. Their last HbA1c results were retrieved from the laboratory information system. A total of 92 participants were recruited. Fifty-six (60.9%) were aware of the term HbA1c. Fifty percent were categorised as having good HbA1c understanding, with age, monthly income and level of education being the factors associated with understanding. No significant association was noted between HbA1c understanding and glycaemic control, although more patients with good HbA1c understanding had achieved the target glycaemic control compared to those with poor understanding. The level of HbA1c awareness and understanding was acceptable. Factors associated with understanding were age, income and level of education. Continuing efforts however, must be made to improve patients understanding of their disease and clinical disease biomarkers.

Practice and perception of self - management among diabetics in Taif, KSA: Impact of demographic factors.

Background: Diabetes is a chronic disease that can be treated but not cured. The medications can help to improve symptoms and to slow down the progression of this disease and it complications. Effective self-management of diabetes has long been acknowledged as essential in the maintenance of good glycemic control and prevention of diabetic complications. Aims & Objective: To assess practice of diabetic patients regarding self-Management in Taif region as well as to collaret specific demographic characteristics associated with practice that may affect patients’ perceptions regarding diabetes self-management. Material and Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted including diabetic patients, who attended the Family Medicine and Endocrinology clinics during regular day working hours (from 8:00 am – 4:00 pm) throughout January, 2011. They were recruited from four hospitals, belonging to Ministry of Defence and Aviation and Ministry of Health by stratified random sampling. An interview was conducted to determine subject's practice, regarding self-management, and potential factors influencing this practice and these practices of self-management using the SDSCA questionnaire. Results: A total of 386 respondents were interviewed in the current study. Their age ranged between 20 and 70 years with a mean of 49.03±13.05. More than half of them were males (56.7%) with a male to female ratio of 1.3:1. The duration of diabetes mellitus was more than 8 years in 46.1% of the participants. More than one-third of participated diabetic patients were aware of their type of diabetes (38.9%) while less than one-third of them were aware of Haemoglobin A1c (29.3%). The highest level of practice was observed regarding compliance with medication (94.7%), while the lowest level of practice was detected regarding blood glucose testing (22.4%). Their practice regarding specific diabetic diet, practicing physical exercise and foot care were 41.7%, 41.2% and 53.4% respectively. Conclusion: This study reflects the poor practice about the management plan of diabetic care particularly the non-pharmacological component of the plan. As, it has been observed that compliance is better with medical aspects of the regimen (e.g. medications) than with life style aspects of the regimen (diet and physical exercise).

Level of glycaemic control in type 2 diabetes mellitus in Bareilly region (India).

Background: Diabetes mellitus has emerged as a major health care problem of India. The real burden of diabetes is due to its associated complications which lead to increased morbidity and mortality. An accurate diagnosis of diabetes and level of glycaemic control in known diabetics is recommended for the treatment and prevention of complication in the population. Aims & Objective: To identify the pattern of glycaemic control in type 2 diabetes mellitus using glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA1C) in Bareilly region, India. Material and Methods: The present cross sectional study was conducted in one of the tertiary care hospital of Bareilly district. The respondents were the 1000 type 2 diabetics of 35 to 60 years of age group. Glycosylated haemoglobin A1C (HbA1C) was done in all subjects by ion exchange chromatography and results were categorized as normal, good, average and poor diabetes control. The statistical analysis was Analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS software. Results: Out of 1000 individuals, 120 had good, 469 had fair and 411 had poor glycaemic control on the basis of their HbA1C status. Age was similar for all 3 groups and was insignificantly related to glycaemic control (p-0.663). Out of 1000 individuals, 703(70.30%) had normal BMI while 297 (29.7%) were overweight. Conclusion: Measurement of glycosylated haemoglobin levels should be used in monitoring the treatment and long term glycaemic control of diabetes in a population and the assessment of body mass index should be done for the need of life style intervention in a population.

Prevalence and severity of periodontal diseases in type 2 diabetes mellitus of Bareilly region (India).

Background: Periodontal disease and diabetes share a two way relationship because of common pathways of disease progression. Aims & Objective: Extensive study on various population worldwide were carried out but there is a limited data for Indian population, Hence, the present study was done to evaluate the prevalence and severity of periodontitis in type 2 diabetes mellitus of Bareilly region of Uttar Pradesh (INDIA). Material and Methods: 1000 individuals of type 2 diabetes mellitus were categorized as good, average and poor glycaemic control on the basis of glycosylated hemoglobinA1C(HbA1C). Periodontal examination was done by recording oral hygiene index simplified, clinical attachment loss and gingival bleeding index. This periodontal result was correlated with glycaemic status and duration of diabetes since diagnosis. Results: Results showed a 91.7% prevalence of periodontitis, predominating with 41.3% cases of moderate periodontitis followed by 26.2% of severe and 24.2% of slight and 8.3% of gingivitis cases. In poor oral hygiene strata; the amount of severe periodontitis cases increased from 0% to 26.2% and up to 73.8%; as the glycaemic control deteriorated from good to average to poor. Similar results were reported for good and fair oral hygiene strata. Conclusion: Results of present study demonstrated that with worsening of glycaemic control, severity of periodontitis significantly increases even when examined for similar oral hygiene status.

Hemoglobina glicosilada A1c vs. glucemia plasmática en ayunas de pacientes ambulatorios de un laboratorio médico / Glycosylated haemoglobin A1c compared to fasting plasma glucose in outpatients referred to a medical laboratory

Objetivo Comparar la prueba hemoglobina glicosilada (HbA1c) en diferentes puntos de corte, con la prueba de glucemia plasmática en ayunas (GPA); para medición de glucosa en sangre en pacientes ambulatorios de un laboratorio médico de la ciudad de Medellín, entre marzo y abril de 2010. Métodos Estudio en 1016 muestras de sangre de pacientes referidos a un laboratorio médico. Se obtuvo la concordancia entre las pruebas (Índice de Kappa), se calcularon sensibilidad y especificidad, además se evaluaron diferentes puntos de corte para la prueba HbA1c con la curva ROC. Se usó correlación de Spearman para establecer la asociación entre GPA y HbA1c. Resultados El valor promedio de HbA1c fue 5,7 % ±0,8 y de la GPA fue 96 mg/dL±26,1; y esta última fue mayor en hombres (99,04±32,7). El 75,4 % de las muestras fueron normales para diagnóstico de diabetes con la prueba GPA, y con la HbA1c el 51,4 % clasificaron en este rango. El punto de corte donde la combinación sensibilidad-especificidad presenta los mejores valores para HbA1c fue 6,2 %. Discusión La prueba HbA1c presentó valores altos de sensibilidad y especificidad, por lo que su uso rutinario en el diagnóstico de diabetes mellitus podría contribuir a la búsqueda activa y la detección precoz de casos, que aseguren un mejor control de los factores de riesgo.

Objective Comparing haemoglobin A glycosylate (HbA1c) at different cutoff points for blood glucose measurement to the fasting plasma glucose (FPG) test in outpatients visiting a medical laboratory in the city of Medellin between March and April 2010. Methods 1,016 blood samples were studied from patients who had been referred to a medical laboratory. Agreement was obtained between tests (Kappa index); sensitivity and specificity were calculated. Different cutoff points for the HbA1c test were also evaluated with the ROC curve. Spearman correlation was used to establish association between FPG and Hb A1c. Results Average HbA1c was 5.7 %±0.8 and average FPG was 96 mg/dL±26.1; this was higher in men (99.04±32.7). 75.4 % of the samples came within the normal range for diagnosing diabetes with the FPG test, compared to 51.4 % with the HbA1c test. The cutoff point where combined sensitivity and specificity presented the best HbA1c value in this study group was 6.2 %. Discussion The HbA1c test had high sensitivity and specificity values, so its routine use in diagnosing diabetes mellitus could contribute towards active and early detection of cases to ensure better control of risk factors.

Comparison of fast protein liquid chromatography (FPLC) with HPLC, electrophoresis & microcolumn chromatography techniques for the diagnosis of β-thalassaemia.

Background & objectives: β-thalassaemia is a genetic disorder and an important health problem around the world. Quantitative haemoglobin A2 (HbA2) levels are used for the diagnosis of β-thalassaemia. The conventional methods are high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), electrophoresis, and microcolumn chromatography techniques. We established a fast protein liquid chromatography (FPLC) method, to measure quantitatively of HbA2 levels, and compared its efficacy with conventional methods. Methods: The FPLC method, using a DEAE Sepharose, Hi Trap anion-exchange column chromatography technique was set up for HbA2 measurement. In this study, 220 blood samples were screened for haemoglobin type by FPLC technique and also using HPLC, microcolumn chromatography and electrophoresis. Results: The FPLC results were highly correlated (r = 0.985, P<0.001) with those of HPLC for quantification of HbA2 as well as cellulose acetate electrophoresis (r = 0.977) and microcolumn chromatography (r = 0.980). The FPLC method showed 100 per cent sensitivity and specificity, positive and negative predictive value for β-thalassaemia diagnosis. In addition, the FPLC method was simple, rapid, low cost and reproducible. The HbA2/E range of FPLC for β-thalassaemia was 6-10 per cent, HbE trait was 10-40 per cent, β-thalassaemia/HbE was 40-60 per cent and homozygous HbE was more than 60 per cent. Interpretation & conclusions: Our findings suggested that FPLC method could be used as a cost-effective method for routine β-thalassaemia diagnosis.

Hemoglobina glucosilada A1C como parámetro de control metabólico en pacientes con diabetes mellitus / Glycated hemoglobin A1C as parameter metabolic control in patients with diabetes mellitus

Se realizó un estudio prospectivo , de carácter observacional ,para determinar los niveles de hemoglobina glicosilada A1c ( Hb A1c ) como parámetro de control metabólico en pacientes con diabetes mellitus del Hospital de Clínicas de La Paz,. Se seleccionó una muestra de 72 pacientes que contaban con controles periódicos de Hb A1C. De los mismos solo uno era diabético de tipo 1, el resto (71) son diabéticos tipo 2. El 69% (49) de los pacientes eran mujeres y un 31 % (23) varones. La mayor parte de los pacientes están por encima de los 45 años, dato en relación con el tipo de diabetes que se presenta (DMT2), el único caso de diabetes mellitus tipo 1 se da en un paciente menor de 25 años. Dos tercios de los pacientes (69% del total) no cuentan siquiera con una dosificación inicial de HbA1c. Se solicitó el examen al 75 % de los pacientes, solamente el 32,7% de los pacientes lo efectivizaron. El 43,3% de los pacientes que cuentan con el control presentaban un nivel de Hb A1c por debajo de 7,5%, sin embargo solo el 20 % logran la meta de Hb A1c por debajo de 6,5 %, que es la cifra que ha demostrado reducir las complicaciones crónicas de la diabetes. Se debe solicitar en la totalidad de los pacientes la dosificación de Hb A1c (como mínimo tres veces al año) para permitirnos conocer la efectividad del manejo realizado y lograr la prevención de complicaciones crónicas.

This is a prospective observational study in order to determine the levels of glycosylated hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) as parameter of metabolic control in patients with diabetes mellitus in the Hospital de Clinicas, La Paz. A sample of 72 patients was selected who had periodic controls of HbA1c. Only one of these patients had diabetes type 1, the rest (71) had diabetes type 2. Of the patients, 49 (69%) were females and 23 (31%) were males. The majority of the patients were older than 45 years, which is to be expected in relation with the type of diabetes presented (DMT2), being the only case of diabetes type 1 a man under 25 years of age. Two thirds of the patients (69% of the total) did not even have an initial measurement of HbA1c. This measurement was requested in 75% of the patients, but only 32.7% had the test done. The 43.3% of the patients who had the control, showed a level of HbA1c below 7.5%, however, only 20% achieved the goal of a HbA1c below 6.5%, which is the level that has been shown to reduce the chronic complications of diabetes. In all patients a periodic control of HbA1c should be requested at least 3 times per year, in order to know the effectiveness of our work and to prevent chronic complications of diabetes.

Expression of Hb b-T and Hb b-E genes in Eastern India—Family studies.

The distribution patterns of different haemoglobins were observed amongst the family members of β-thalassaemia homozygous and HbE-β-thalassaemia patients with the aid of gel electrophoretic and alkali denaturation techniques. Of the 18 families studied, four belonged to β-thalassaemia homozygous and 14 to HbE-β-thalassaemia patients. Interaction of HbE and β-thalassaemia genes resulted in major clinical abnormalities with increase in the percentages of haemoglobins F and E. The percentages of HbA2 in homozygous β- thalassaemia were within the normal range. Although in Southeast Asia the β° type of HbEthalassaemia is more prevalent, only one individual with this type of thalassaemia was observed during this survey. In the rest of the patients examined the percentages of adult haemoglobin ranged from 5.2 to 42.5 indicating the presence of a b+ type gene.